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A COMPLETE GEOGEAPHY 



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TARR AND McMURRY GEOGRAPHIES 



A COMPLETE GEOGRAPHY 



BY 

RALPH S. TARR, B.S., F.G.S.A. 

PROFESSOR OF DYNAMIC GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 
AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY 

AND 

FRANK M. McMURRY, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR OF THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING AT TEACHERS 
COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



WITE NUMEROUS MAPS AND MANY ILLUSTRATIONS, CHIEFLY 
PHOTOGBAPHS OF ACTUAL SCENES 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd, ~ 
1902 

All rights reserved 



OC NGfiESS, 
Two C0H68 Receive© 

APR. 11 syo2 

Cor-.RI«HT CNTHY 

CL «S« ^^l-XXc No. 
COPY B. 



Copyright, 1900, 1901, 1902, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY 



Set up and electrotyped February, igoz. 






'V 



Nortoonti ^ress 

J. S. Cushing & Co. — Berwick & Smith 
Norwood Mass. U.S.A. 



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PREFACE 

In the plan of this volume the authors have left the beaten track 
to such an extent that some words of explanation seem in place. 

General Geography. — Probably the most difhcult part of the 
geography for Grammar School grades is that dealing with seasons, 
winds, rainfall, temperature, etc. It ordinarily occupies a con- 
siderable number of pages at the beginning of the larger book, and 
follows immediately upon Primary Geography. 

This arrangement requires pupils to spring from a meagre study 
of simple, concrete facts to the highest abstractions in the entire 
subject ; and what makes the matter worse, these broad abstractions 
are usually only very briefly stated. 

The authors of this volume have followed a different plan. 
Only three chapters, at the beginning of the book, precede the in- 
tensive treatment of the United States. The first is a physiographic 
history of the continent, showing how its principal mountain ranges 
and valleys came into existence ; how its coal beds were formed ; 
what were the effects of the great Ice Age ; and what have been the 
more recent changes in the coast line, with their results. Then comes 
a chapter on the Plants, Animals, and Peoples of North America; 
and following that is a treatment of Latitude and Longitude. 

Only so much is presented before taking up the United States, 
because that is all that seems really necessary. Whatever further 
facts have been needed for North America in regard to seasonal 
changes, winds, etc., have been plainly stated, when wanted, just as 
other concrete facts have been. After our continent is finished 
and a fair number of concrete data, bearing on these matters, has 
been collected, these topics themselves are treated in much detail. 
By this arrangement, the study of these difficult subjects has been 
postponed one year, and they are then approached somewhat induc- 
tively. The authors regard this as one of the most important among 
their proposed changes in method. 

The general principles in regard to industries, distribution of 
inhabitants, mutual relation of city and country, and dependence of 



vi PREFACE 

various sections upon one another form another subject which, con- 
trary to custom, is treated in the middle and latter parts of the 
volume. One reason for this is that these broad truths approach ab- 
stractions in their nature, and are, consequently, too difficult to be 
earlier appreciated by children. They are, moreover, to a large ex- 
tent, a summary of what has preceded, and, therefore, naturally 
come last. A more inductive approach is, therefore, again highly 
desirable. Their great importance, also, has caused more than the 
usual amount of space to be given to them. 

Physiographic Basis and Causal Sequence. — The authors believe 
that rational geography must rest upon a physiographic foundation. 
It is physiographic conditions which most often furnish the reasons 
for the location of human industries, the development of transporta- 
tion routes, the situation of cities, etc. In other words, when the 
physiographic facts about a given region are clearly grasped, most 
of the other geographic facts easily arrange themselves as links in a. 
causal chain. Thus the many details touching a certain locality are 
taught in relation with one another, so that they approach the form 
of a narrative, rather than that of a mere list of statements. 

Physiography has, therefore, been introduced freely ; but not too 
freely, provided each physical fact is shown really to function in 
man's relation to the earth. Physiography that is clearly shown to 
have a real bearing upon man greatly enriches the subject of geog- 
raphy ; it is the unused physical geography that is a stumbling block 
in the grades, and this we have tried to avoid. 

Review of North America. — A common defect in the teaching 
of geography is that the facts previously learned about the United 
States fade from the pupil's memory while other countries are being 
studied. Yet the relation between North America and the other con- 
tinents is so marked that this defect is unnecessary. For example, 
most of the industries and important principles of physiography and 
climate have received the attention of a child when he has completed 
a general study of the United States. Foreign lands illustrate the 
same great ideas under slightly different conditions. This means 
that the comprehension of foreign countries may best be gained by 
our children if they use their previous knowledge of the United 
States as a basis of comparison. If, then, this old related knowledge 
is carefully called to mind when the physiography, climate, and 
industries of a foreign land are approached, our pupils will not 
only secure a fuller appreciation of that region, but will also keep 



P EFFACE vii 

fresh their knowledge of the United States by bringing it into 
use. 

The above has been a controlling idea in preparing this volume. 
Accordingly in approaching the physiography of South America 
(p. 305), the physiography and climate of Europe (pp. 337-344), 
grazing in Argentina (p. 318), etc., we have reproduced the cor- 
responding situation in our own country at some length. Besides 
this, we have included in the text scores of brief comparisons with 
the United States. By this means incidental reviews are continually 
provided, which are especially attractive to both teachers and pupils 
because they contain more of motive than the ordinary " review for 
review's sake." 

To supplement this kind of review several sets of questions, 
which call for still different comparisons with the United States, are 
included in the book, one series being found at the close of the treat- 
ment of each continent. These are likewise rich in motive, inas- 
much as they recall leading facts in regard to the United States from 
varying points of view. It should be kept in mind also that each 
set at the same time reviews another continent from a new point of 
view. 

Many of the facts in regard to the United States which these 
questions call for are not presented in the text which treat of the 
various continents, and answers for a few of them are not indicated 
in the maps. Also pupils may have forgotten some of the impor- 
tant information about the United States. For these reasons Section 
XIII, covering eighteen pages, is an organized review of North 
America alone. It includes the principal facts about our continent 
which every pupil should know on completing the grades. 

The title of the last section, " The United States Compared 
with Other Countries," indicates provision for still further review. 
It has seemed to the authors an anti-climax to close several years' 
study of geography with the Islands of the Pacific, lands farthest away 
from us and of least interest to us. On the other hand, it has been 
deemed highly important that, after all the countries of the world 
have been treated, the closing chapter should summarize the situa- 
tion and show the rank of our own land and its relation to others. 
This secures a final reconsideration of the principal facts in our 
geography, while at the same time it brings them into proper re- 
lation and perspective. 

On the whole, we are of the opinion that reviews should occupy 



Vlii PREFACE 

a large part of the time of instruction ; and by the plan followed we 
hope that pupils will have a fairly complete knowledge of the United 
States and the rest of the world in their possession, not only when 
they finish the grades, but in years to follow. 

Types. — Another characteristic of this volume is that it deals 
with many of the fundamental ideas of geography at some length. 
As was suggested in the Preface of the Primary Book, the basal units 
for the study of geography, although constantly in use, are seldom 
adequately presented in the text-books. This applies strikingly, for 
example, to such topics as farm, cattle ranch, irrigation, lumber camp, 
and factory. In order to remedy this defect as far as possible, each 
subject of such a kind is presented in these books with as much de- 
tail as space permits, and in connection with that section of country 
in which it seems most prominent. 

For example, lumbering, fishing, and the manufacture of cloth, 
boots, and shoes receive their most detailed treatment in connection 
with New England ; the mining of coal and iron ore and the manu- 
facture of iron goods are discussed in connection with the Middle 
Atlantic States ; and gold mining, irrigation, and grazing are natu- 
rally included under the Western States. 

The industries and objects thus described, being fairly typical of 
industries and objects found elsewhere, are on that account worthy of 
being called types. Through the careful presentation of such types, 
vivid pictures and an appreciation on the part of the pupils are assured. 

The study of the United States has, as suggested above, fur- 
nished occasion for detailed treatment of most geographic types. 
Some important features and occupations, however, are not found 
in the United States, and to these we have endeavored to give the 
same careful consideration. For instance, so far as space permits, 
the Brazilian forest is presented as a type of tropical forests (page 
255). Other illustrations may be found in the treatment of the 
linen industry on page 292 ; and the silk industry on page 315. 
The object is to continue to acquaint the learner properly with the 
basal units of geography. 

Relative Worth of Facts. — Good judgment is nothing more than 
proper appreciation of the relative worth of knowledge. Cer- 
tainly geography should be utilized for the development of this 
quality. The study of any subject by types tends in this direction 
because types themselves are the topics of special value. The fre- 
quent comparisons provided for at the close of many of the chapters 



PBEFACE ^ ix 

accomplish the same purpose, for they lift the more important 
thoughts into prominence while neglecting non-essentials. Similarly 
the two review chapters, one a Review and Comparison of our states, 
the other a Comparison of the United States with other countries, 
distinguish in a marked way the leading from the minor facts. But, 
above all, throughout this volume the subject matter in each chapter 
is presented under few headings, so that the learner is likely to be 
impressed with the simplicity of the situation. The authors, at least, 
cherish the hope that the pupil will see the outline clearly even in the 
midst of the necessary mass of details. Certainly it is one duty of a 
text to teach a child to separate major from minor points and to carry 
the outline in mind. 

The need of more attention to this matter of perspective is most 
clearly shown in the study of the United States by individual states. 
To be sure, there is a call for a knowledge of our own country by 
states, and an endeavor has been made to meet it by several sets of 
questions which require a careful state review. But when the geog- 
raphy of the United States is presented primarily by states, the child 
is oppressed and confused by the great number of individual facts 
which have apparently the same rank. Even an adult cannot easily 
escape a feeling of confusion on reading a few pages from any modern 
geography that divides the subject into such small units. The 
remedy, therefore, is to proceed by much larger divisions, i.e. by 
groups of states. 

Thus farming by irrigation is only one topic, and only once 
treated, for the entire western division of states. Several pages are 
devoted to a discussion of the subject, including the manner in which 
irrigation is planned, its influence on the value of land, the localities 
most noted for irrigation, and the cities in the different states that 
are largely indebted to it for their growth. These many details are 
associated as parts of one story. By this means the children's minds 
may be led to dwell long enough upon one topic to insure interest in 
it ; and as there are only a few such topics in the entire chapter on 
the Western States, each indicated, too, by special type, it is not 
difficult to keep in mind the leading points. 

Similar provision for relative values in the study of foreign 
countries is clearly illustrated in the chapter on the British Isles. 

Political Maps. — Since it is necessary to, represent more places 
and present more details, the political maps in this volume are for 
the most part larger than in the Primary Book ; but they are of the 



X PREFACE 

same quality. An important feature is the grading of cities according 
to population — the larger the city, the more important the type used. 
The principal features of relief are placed upon the map, though 
without interfering with the clearness of the political divisions. In 
the color arrangement care has been used to gain an artistic effect, 
and at the same time to preserve the distinctness necessary in such 
maps. 

No attempt has been made to preserve the same scale for the 
different maps. Some books claim to do this, and their authors 
point to the fact as noteworthy. The authors of this series have 
deliberately declined to make such an attempt for several reasons. 
In the first place, it is impossible. There must be maps of the World, 
of North America, of the United States, of a part of the great West, 
and of New England. Even in those books which point to their 
uniformity of scale as a merit, maps of five or ten different scales are 
in use. 

The claim for uniformity of scale has no real foundation ; but, if 
it had, the effect would be undesirable. One of the objects of the 
study of geography is to teach the meaning and use of maps. To 
do this, one of the first and most fundamental points is to teach the 
pupil to understand the meaning and importance of the system of 
proportion, or of " scale." In one book are maps of various scales ; 
in the first atlas, or in the first wall map which the pupil sees, there 
are still different scales. The pupils must be prepared to expect 
and to understand these differences, and it is the teacher's duty to 
see that they are so prepared. By the insertion of Pennsylvania as 
a key, and by some of our map questions we have attempted to aid 
in this training of the sense of proportion. 

Other Illustrations. — Besides the relief indicated on the political 
maps there are individual relief maps made especially for this series. 
The relief maps of the continents are pronounced by experts to be 
the best thus far made. 

The city maps are intended to serve to illustrate the surround- 
ings which determine the growth of the large cities, including, of 
course, the transportation facilities by water and by rail. Attention 
is also called to the maps showing the distribution of the important 
industries and to the diagrams that accompany them. These are all 
placed in the summaries with which they are most closely related ; 
but the teacher will naturally find occasion to use them and refer to 
them in connection with the study of the earlier sections. A series 



PBEFACE xi 

of maps is also introduced which gives a graphic view of the 
density of population of the continents. All the railway lines of 
each of the continents excepting Europe are also shown either on 
the political maps or else by special maps. The colonies of some 
of the leading nations are given in two full-page illustrations; 
and the great commercial routes of the world are represented 
by a single-page map. It is believed that this large number of 
maps, each devoted to a specific object, will be found of great 
value. 

Besides the maps and diagrams there are many half-tones of 
photographs selected to supplement the text. They are not intro- 
duced merely as pictures, but as part of the fund of information 
offered. For this purpose the half-tone is the best adapted; there 
is reason for confidence in the accuracy of such views. 

Acknowledgments. — The political and many of the black maps 
are made by the Matthews-Northrup Company, of Buffalo ; the relief 
maps, by E. E. Howell, of "Washington. The world maps showing 
the distribution of products are in part based upon maps kindly 
furnished to us by the Philadelphia Commercial Museum, and a few 
of them are actual reproductions of the museum maps. Our photo- 
graphs have been selected from various sources, but the larger 
number have been purchased from William H. Rau, of Philadelphia. 
Through the kindness of Commander Webster we have obtained per- 
mission to use the photographs reproduced in Figures 406, 433, 434, 
and 435 ; and Figures 272, 273, 278, 289, 290, 402, 447, 464, 465, 469, 
473, and 477 are borrowed from Ratzel's " History of Mankind." A 
number of European views were loaned by Dr. Heinrich Ries, of 
Cornell University, and the wash drawings were made by Mr. C. W. 
Furlong, also of Cornell. 

We are indebted to Mr. Philip Emerson, of the Cobbet School, 
Lynn, Massachusetts, for his suggestive criticism of the manuscript 
and for further aid in the preparation of the section on Australia. 
Valuable assistance in the preparation of the statistical tables has 
been rendered by Mr. R. H. Whitbeck, of Cornell University. 
While we have drawn upon many sources for the information upon 
which the text in this volume is based, the extensive use that has 
been made of Mill's " International Geography " and the " States- 
man's Yearbook " — books which every geography teacher should 
have at hand — calls for special acknowledgment. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PART I. NORTH AMERICA 

PAGE 

Section I. Physiography of North America ...... 1 

The Growth of the Continent, 1. The Coal Period, 2. The Moun- 
tains AND Plateaus, 4. Volcanoes, 5. The Trough between the 
Two Mountain Systems, 6. The Great Ice Age, 8. The Coast Line, 
11. Size, Shape, and Position, 13. Summary, 14. 

Section II. Plants, Animals, and Peoples ....... 16 

Plants of the North, 16. Animals of the North, 17. Plants and 
Animals in Western North America, 18. Plants and Animals of 
the Tropical Zone, 19. Plants and Animals in the Temperate Part 
OF North America, 20. Peoples. Eskimos, 22. Indians, 28. The 
Spaniards, 24. The French, 25. The English, 26. Westward 
Migration, 28. Slavery, 28. Immigrants to America, 29. 

Section III. Latitude, Longitude, and Standard Time .... 31 
Latitude and Longitude. Need of a Means for locating Places, 31. 
The Streets of a City, 31. Distance North and South of the 
Equator (Latitude), 32. East and West Distances on the Earth 
(Longitude), 33. Standard Time, 36. 

Section IV. United States 39 

Section V. New England . . . . . . . . . . . 41 

Physiography and Climate, 41. The Forests. Cutting the Timber, 42. 
Floating the Logs to the Mills, 43. Sawmills and Paper-mills, 43. 
The Rocks. Granite, 45. Marble, 46. Slate, 46. Fishing. Mack- 
erel, 47. Halibut and Codfish, 48. Other Ocean Foods, 49. Agri- 
culture, 49. Manufacturing. Cotton Manufacturing, 51. Wool 
Manufacturing, 52. Leather Manufacturing, 52. Metal Manufac- 
turing, 53. Largest Cities and Chief Shipping Routes. The Large 
Cities, 54. Boston and Vicinity, 54. 

Section VI. Middle Atlantic States ........ 58 

Physiography, 58. Climate, 60. Forests, 61. Fish and Oysters, 61. 
Agriculture. Dairying, 62. Tobacco, 63. Fruits and Vegetables, 
63. Mining. Salt, 64. Coal, 65. Oil and Gas, 67. Iron Ore, 68. 
Iron AND Iron Goods, 68. Glass, Pottery, Bricks, etc., 71. Largest 
Cities and Chief Shipping Routes. Location of New York City, 71. 
Erie Canal, 72. Eailways of New York, 73. New York City, 75. 
Philadelphia and its Chief Shipping Routes, 77. Baltimore, 79. 
District of Columbia, 79. Richmond and Norfolk, 80. 

xiii 



XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Section VII. Southern States 83 

Physiography, 83. Climate, 84. Forests, 85. Agriculture. Cotton, 
87. Rice, 89. Sugar-cane and Sugar, 89. Fruits, 91. Other Crops, 
91. Grazing, 92. Mineral Products. Coal and Iron, 92. Stone, 
93. Gold and Precious Stones, 93. Phosphates, 93. Salt and 
Oil, 93. Manufacturing, 93. Leading Cities and Shipping Routes. 
New Orleans, 95. Memphis and Atlanta, 98. Other Cities, 98. 
Texas Cities, 99. The Territories, 99. 

Section VIII. Central States .......... 103 

Physiography and Climate, 103. Settlement of the Mississippi Valley, 
103. Agriculture. A Farm in Central Ohio, 105. Fruits, 107. 
Tobacco, 108. Fine Stock in Kentucky, 108. Caverns, 108. Corn, 
108. Wheat, 110. Other Grains, 111. Cattle Ranching, 111. Lum- 
bering, 115. Mineral Products. Building Stone, 116. Petroleum 
AND Natural Gas, 116. Coal, 117. Iron Ore, 117. Copper, 118. 
Lead, Zinc, etc., 119. Clays, 120. Principal Cities and Shipping 
Routes, 120. The Lake Cities. Duluth and Superior, 120. Chi- 
cago, 121. Stock Yards of Chicago, 122. Manufacturing in Chicago, 
123. Other Facts about Chicago, 123. Other Cities along the 
Lakes, 124. The River Cities. Cities along the Mississippi, 124. 
Cities along the Missouri, 126. Cities in the Ohio Valley, 127. 

Section IX. The Western States . . . . . . . . . 149 

Early Settlements, 131. Physiography, 132. Climate, 133. Mineral 
Products, 135. Lumbering, 138. Agriculture, 140. Ranching, 143. 
Territories, 146. Scenery. The Yellowstone Park, 147. Colo- 
rado Canyon, 148. Yosemite Valley, 149. The Cities. Cities in 
the Interior, 149. Cities on the Pacific Slope, 150. > 

Section X. Territories and Dependencies of the United States . . 156 
Alaska. Climate and Physiography, 156. Fishing, 157. Whaling, 
157. Sealing, 157. Mining, 158. Cuba and Porto Rico. Physiog- 
raphy AND Climate, 159. Forests and Minerals, 160. Agriculture, 
160. Cities, 161. The Hawaiian Islands. The Volcanoes, 162. 
Industries, 163. The Hawaiian Islands as a Coaling Station, 164. 
Guam and Samoa, 164. The Philippine Islands. Physiography, 
165. Climate, 166. Resources and Industries, 167. Cities, 169. 

Section XI. Countries North of the United States ..... 171 

Canada and Newfoundland. History, 171. Physiography and Cli- 
mate, 172. Lumbering, 173. Fishing, 174. Sealing, 175. Agricul- 
ture AND Ranching, 175. Mining, 177. Trade Routes and Cities, 
178. Islands North of North America, 181. 
Section XII. Countries South of the United States ..... 183 

Mexico. Physiography and Climate, 183. History, 184. Agricul- 
ture AND Ranching, 184. Southern Mexico, 187. The Mines, 187. 
The Cities, 187. Central America. The Republics, 189. Canals, 
190. The West Indies. Jamaica, 191. Haiti, 192. Lesser Antilles, 
192. The Bahamas, 192. The Bermudas, 193. 
Section XIII. Review of North America ....... 195 

Physical Geographtt, 195. Population, 196. City and Country, 197. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XV 

PAGE 

Country, 198. Cities, 203. Dependence of Different Sections upon 
One Another, 205. Relation to our Territories and Dependencies, 
205. Other Countries of North America, 206. Our Relation to 
Other Countries, 206. Transportation Routes, 207. Influence of 
Steam and Electricity, 208. Influence of Modern Inventions on 
Mode of Life, 208. Influence of our Surroundings on Education 
and Government, 209. 



PART II. GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

Section I. The Earth as a Planet : Summer and Winter . . . .211 
Form and Size, 211. Daily Motion, 211. Yearly Motion, 212. 
The Attraction of Gravitation, 213. Length of Day and Night, 
214. The Zones, 215. 

Section II. Winds and Rain 216 

Winds. Review, 216. Effect of a Stove, 216. Winds of the Earth, 
217. Effect of Rotation, 218. Wind Belts, 218. Belt of Calms 
and Belts of Horse Lalitudes, 219. Effect of Revolution, 220. 
Rain. Causes for Rain, 220. Rain Belts in North America, 221. 
Other Rainy and Arid Regions of Northern Hemisphere, 222. 
South of the Equator, 223. Belt of Calms, 223. Migration of 
Rain Belts, 224. Eastern United States and Canada, 224. Weather 
Maps, 228. Cyclonic Storms in Europe, 228. Sea and Land 
Breezes ; Monsoons, 229. 

Section III. Ocean Movements and Distribution of Temperature . . 232 
Wind Waves, 232. Tides. What the Tides are, 2.32. Height of 
THE Tidal Wave, 232. Ocean Currents. Cause of Ocean Currents, 
233. The North Atlantic Eddy, 233. The Gulf Stream, 234. 
The Labrador Current, 235. The Currents in the North Pacific 
Ocean, 236. Eddies of the Southern Oceans, 2.36. Effects of 
Ocean Currents in North America : Review, 236. Effects on 
Other Regions, 237. Distribution of Temperature, 238. 

Section IV. Peoples 242 

Divisions of Mankind, 242. Distribution of Races, 244. Distribu- 
tion OF Religion, 244. 



PART III. SOUTH AMERICA 

Physiography, 247. Climate, 249. Plant and Animal Life, 250. The 
People, 252. Brazil. Physiography and Climate, 254. The Tropi- 
cal Forest, 255. Products of the Forest, 256. Coffee Raising, 256. 
Other Industries in Brazil, 257. Cities, 257. Argentina. Physi- 
ography AND Climate, 2.58. Cattle Raising, 259. Farming, 259. 
Manufacturing and Commerce, 259. Cities, 260. Uruguay and 
Paraguay. Uruguay, 260. Paraguay, 261. The Guianas and Vene- 



XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

zuela. The Guianas, 262. Venezuela, 262. Tropical Andean Coun- 
tries. Points of Resemblance, 263. Colombia, 265, Ecuador, 266. 
Peru, 267. Bolivia, 269. Chile. Phtsiographt and Climate, 270. 
Mineral Wealth, 270. Agriculture, Manufacturing, and General 
Development, 271. Cities, 272. Islands Near the Continent, 272. 



PAET IV. EUROPE 

Section I. Physiography, Climate, and People ...... 275 

Physiography. Highlands and Lowlands, 275. Coal Beds, 277. The 
Great Ice Sheet, 277. The Coast Line, 278. Climate. Influence 
OF Latitude, 278. Resemblance to Western North America, 279. 
Influence of Cyclonic Storms, 279. Effect of Mountain Ranges, 
280. Inland Seas, 281. People, 281. Influence of the Discovery 
OF America, 281. 

Section II. The British Isles 283 

Position, Size, and Importance, 283. Inhabitants, 283. Physiography 
AND Climate, 283. Agriculture, 285. Pishing, 287. Mining, 287. 
Reasons for Development of Manufacturing, 288. Woollen and 
Cotton Manufactures, 289. Iron and Steel Manufacturing, 290. 
Ireland, 291. Location of Principal Cities, 293. London, 293. 
Other English Cities, 296. Cities of Scotland, 297. Cities of 
Ireland, 298. Puller Reasons for the Greatness of the British 
Empire, 298. Government, 300. 

Section III. The Netherlands and Belgium ...... 302 

The Netherlands (Holland). Physiography, 302. People and Gov- 
ernment, 303. Agriculture, 303. Manufacturing, 304. Commerce, 
304. Colonies, 305. Cities, 306. Belgium. Physiography, 306. 
People and Government, 307. Agriculture, 307. Mining, and 
Manufacturing, 308. Commerce, 308. Cities, 309. 

Section IV. Prance ............ 311 

People and Government, 311. Physiography and Climate, 312. Agri- 
culture, 312. Minerals, 314. Manufacturing, 314. Wool and 
Cotton Manufactures, 314. Silk Manufacturing, 315. Other 
Manufactures, 316. Paris, 316. {Location, 316 ; Paris as an Art 
Centre, 317 ; Manufactures of Paris, 318 ; Commerce of Paris, 318.) 
Other Cities, 318. Commerce op France, 319. Colonies, 319. 

Section V. Spain and Portugal .... ..... 320 

People and Government, 320. Physiography and Climate, .321. Agri- 
culture AND Grazing, 322. Mining, 323. Manufacturing, 323. 
Principal Cities op Spain, 323. Colonies of Spain, 325. Principal 
Cities and Colonies of Portugal, 325. 

Section VI. Norway, Sweden, and Denmark ...... 327 

People, 327. Physiography and Climate, 327. Agricultural District, 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XVll 

PAGE 

328. Industries and Cities of Norway, 329. Scenery on the West- 
ern Coast, 331. Industries and Cities op Sweden, 331. Inddstries 
AND Cities op Denmark, 333. Colonies op Denmark, 334. 

Section VII. Eussia 335 

Size and Position, 335. Physiography, 335. Climate, 336. People 
AND Government, 337. Lumbering, 338. Farming and Grazing, 338. 
Mineral Wealth, 338. Manupacturing, 339. Principal Cities and 
their Commerce. Moscow and Nijni Novgorod, 339. St. Peters- 
burg, 340. Odessa, 341. Warsaw and Lodz, 341, 

Section VIII. German Empire .......... 343 

Extent and Position, 343. People and Government, 343. Defence, 
344. Physiography, 345. Climate, 346. Forests, 347. Agriculture 
AND Grazing, 348. Mining, 348. Manufacturing, 349. Germany's 
Rapid Advance, 350. Colonies and Emigrants, 351. Principal 
Cities and their Commerce. Berlin, 352. Interior Cities near 
Berlin, 352. Seaports, 353. Cities along the Ehine, 354. 

Section IX. Switzerland ........... 356 

Physiography and Climate, 356. People and Government, 357. Farm- 
ing, 357. Manufacturing, 358. Leading Cities, 358. Scenery and 
Tourists, 360. 

Section X. Italy 361 

Extent and Position, 361. People and Government, 361. Physiog- 
raphy AND Climate, 362. Agriculture, 362. Mining and Fishing, 
363. Manufacturing, 363. Principal Cities, 364. (Naples and 
Vicmity, 364 ; A7icient and Modern Borne, 365 ; Other Italian Cities, 
367.) San Marino and Malta, 369. 

Section XI. Austria-Hungary .......... 370 

Physiography and Climate, 370. People and Government, 371. Natu- 
ral Resources, 372. Manufacturing and Commerce, 373. Principal 
Cities, 374. Small Countries, 375. 

Section XII. The Balkan Peninsula 376 

Physiography and Climate, 376. People, 377. Montenegro, 377. Ser- 
viA, 377. Roumania and Bulgaria, 378. Turkey in Europe, 378. 
Greece, 379. Islands near Greece, 382. 



PART V. ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA AND ISLAND 

GROUPS 

Section I. Asia 385 

Size and Position, 385. Physiography and Climate, 385. Plants and 
Animals, 387. People, 388. Turkish or Ottoman Empire, 389. 
{Conditions in the Empire, 390 ; The Holy Land, 391 ; Mesopotamia, 392.) 
Arabia, 393. Persia, 393. Afghanistan, 395. Russia in Asia, 395. 
India, 396. (Physiography and Climate, 396 ; Farming, 397 ; Forests 
and Wild Animals, 399 ; Mining and Manufacturing, 399 ; Famines 



xviii TABLE OF CONTENTS 



and Plagues, 399 ; Government, 400 ; Baluchistan and Burma, 401 ; Base 
of Himalayas, 401 ; Principal Cities, 402.) Cetlon, 403. Indo-China 
AND THE Malay Peninsula, 404. (Siam, 404 ; French Indo-China, 404 ; 
Straits Settlements, 4:0b.) Chinese Empire, 405. {Area and Population, 
405; Climate, 405; People and Civilization, 406; National Besources, 
408 ; Government, 409 ; Principal Cities, 409.) Korea, 410. Japan, 411. 
{Physiography and Climate, 411 ; People and Government, 411 ; Becent 
Advance, 413; Besources, 413; Principal Cities, 414.) 

Section II. Africa 416 

Physiography, 416. Climate, 416. Plants and Animals, 418. The 
People, 418. Exploration and Settlement, 419. Northern Africa. 
Political Divisions, 420. The Sahara, 421. Egypt and the Neigh- 
boring British Territory, 422. ( The Nile, 422 "; Agriculture, 424 ; 
The People, 424; Suez Canal, 426 ; Cities, 426.) The Barbary States, 
427. Southern Africa. Comparison avith Northern Africa, 429. The 
People, 429. Agriculture and Grazing, 430. Mineral Wealth, 431. 
Commerce and Cities, 432. Central Africa. The Rivers, 433. The 
People, 434. Divisions of Central Africa, 435. Need of Railways, 
437. Islands near Africa, 437. 

Section III. Australia and Island Groups ....... 439 

Australia. Physiography, 439. Climate, 440. Plants, 441. History, 
442. Sheep Raising, 443. Animal Products, 444. Farming, 444. 
Mining, 445. Manufacturing, 445. Cities, 446. Island Groups. New 
Zealand, 447. The East Indies, 448. Islands of the Pacific, 451. 

The United States compared with Other Countries ..... 453 
Area and Population, 453. Leading Raw Products, 454. Manufac- 
turing AND Commerce, 458. Dependence upon Other Nations, 460. 
Exports and Imports, 461. Reasons for the Rank of the United 
States, 463. 

Appendix. Tables of Area, Population, etc. ...... i 



LIST OF MAPS 

COLOKED POLITICAL MAPS 

42. North America. 

44. United States. 
47. New England. 

62. Middle Atlantic States. 
87. Southern States. 

104. Central States. 

131. Western States. 

157. Alaska. 

163. West Indies, with Map of Cuba and Porto Eico. 

172. Dependencies of the United States in the Pacific. 

181. Canada, Newfoundland, and Greenland. 

194. Mexico and Central America. 

281. South America. 

313. The British Isles. 

337. Western Europe. 

352. Europe. 

374. Central Europe. 

403. Asia. 

416. Holy Land. 

443. Africa. 

407. Australia. 

511. Mercator Chart of World. 

512. The Hemispheres. 

EELIEF MAPS 

9. The Continental Ice Sheet. 
10. North America. 

43. Physiographic Map of the United States (with names). 

45. United States. 

46. New England. 

63. Middle Atlantic States. 
86. Southern States. 

103. Central States. 

130. Western States. 

282. South America. 

304. Europe. 



XX LIST OF MAPS 

407. Asia. 

444. Africa. 

468. Australia. 



CITY MAPS 

48. Boston, Providence, Portland, and Worcester. 

77. Buffalo, Eochester, and Albany. 

81. New York City and Philadelphia. 

82. Baltimore and Washington. 

88. New Orleans, Memphis, Birmingham, and Atlanta. 

105. Chicago and Milwaukee. 

124. St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha, Minneapolis, and St. Paul. 

12.5. Detroit, Cleveland, Cincinnati, and Pittsburg. 

132. San Francisco, Portland, Tacoma, and Seattle. 

182. Montreal and Quebec. 

322. London and Liverpool. 

338. Paris and its Vicinity. 

373. Berlin and its Vicinity. 

396. Constantinople and its Vicinity. 

451, Cairo and its Vicinity. 



MAPS ILLUSTRATING CLIMATE 

247. Shifting of Wind and Rain Belts. 

248. Shifting of Wind and Rain Belts. 

249. Wind Belts of the Earth. 

250. Rainfall of the World. 

251. Winds and Rainfall of South America. 

252. Winds and Rainfall of Western United States. 

253. Winds and Rainfall of Africa. 

254. Winds and Rainfall of Australia. 

255. Summer Winds and Rainfall in Southern Hemisphere. 

256. Winter Winds and Rainfall in Southern Hemisphere. 

257. Rainfall of the United States in Inches. 

259. Weather Map. 

260. Weather Map. 

261. Cyclonic Storm in Europe. 

262. Summer Monsoons, India. 

263. Winter Monsoons, India. 

264. Currents of the North Atlantic. 

267. Ocean Currents of the World. 

268. Isothermal Chart of the World for July. 

269. Isothermal Chart of the World for January. 

270. Isothermal Chart of the United States for January. 

271. Isothermal Chart of the United States for July. 
310. Rainfall of Europe. 

314. Rainfall Map of the British Isles. 



LIST OF MAPS xxi 



317. Coal Fields of Great Britain. 

329. The Netherlands (showing relation to sea level). 

445. Vegetation Zones of Africa. 



PEODUCT MAPS 

209. Principal Corn-raising Eegion of the United States. 

211, Principal Wheat-raising Region of the United States. 

213. Principal Cotton-raising Eegion of the United States. 

216. Principal Tobacco-raising Region of the United States. 

220. Coal Fields of the United States. 

223. Iron, Copper, Oil, and Gas-producing Districts of the United States. 

224. Principal Gold and Silver Regions of the United States. 

231. Principal Forest Regions of the United States. 

232. Fishing Grounds near North America. 

234. Manufacturing Regions of the United States. 

305. Coal Fields of Europe. 

454. World Map for Corn. 

485. World Map for Wheat. 

487. World Map for Cotton. 

489. World Map for Sheep. 

490. World Map for Wool. 

491. World Map for Coal. 
493. World Map for Iron. 
495. World Map for Silver. 
497. World Map for Gold 

499. Manufacturing Districts of the World. 

504. World Map for Coffee. 

506. World Map for Cane and Beet Sugar. 

509. World Map for Rice. 

DENSITY OF POPULATION MAPS 

41. North America. 

207. United States. 

208. United States (centre of population) . 
288. South America. 

303. Europe. 

400. Asia. 

446. Africa. 

472. Australia. 

482, Density of Population Comparison (diagram). 

OTHEE MAPS 

33. Political Map of North America in 1760. 

32. Settled Part of the United States, 1790. 

38. Standard Time Belts of United States. 



xxil LIST OF MAPS 

59. Map showing the Fall Line. .■' ' ' 

60. The Erie Canal. 

227. Railroads of the United States. 

237. Railroads of Eastern United States. 

238. Navigable Rivers of the United States. 
240. Growth of the United Seates. 

244. Map of the Zones. 

272. Races of Man. 

277. Distribution of Religions. 

306. Ice Sheet of Europe. 

312. The British Empire. 

353. Colonies of United States, Germany, France, and the Netherlands. 

510. Transportation Routes and Telegraph Lines. 



Paet I 
NORTH AMERICA 

I. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 

The Growth of the Continent. — There are about one hundred 
million persons in North America at the present time, although 
a century ago there were scarcely one-tenth of that number. This 
wonderful growth has been largely due to the useful and valuable 
mineral products of the earth; to the soil and climate which have 
allowed many different kinds of plants and animals to thrive ; and 
to the rivers, waterfalls, lakes, and harbors which have made manu- 
facturing and shipping easy. 

As it takes time to build a house, and to prepare the boards from 
trees, the nails from iron ore, and the bricks from clay, so it takes 
time for the formation of minerals and rocks and for the building of a 
continent. In fact, millions of years have been required for that work. 

The story, telling how North America was made, is a very inter- 
esting one. It has been discovered by a careful study of the rocks ; 
and although there are many questions that no man is yet able to 
answer, we are prepared to tell a part of the story. 

At one time the earth was probably a white-hot sphere like the 
sun; but in time the outside cooled to a crust of solid rock. The 
interior, still heated, continued to shrink and grow smaller, as most 
substances do when cooling. This caused the solid crust to settle 
and wrinkle, much as the skin of an apple does when the fruit is dry- 
ing. Water collecting in the depressions formed the oceans, while 
between them, where the elevation of the earth's crust was greatest, 
rocks appeared above the sea level. Thus North America and the 
other continents were born. 

In its babyhood, although the centre of the continent was still 
a broad sea, the eastern and western parts doubtless resembled the 
West Indies of to-day, which you will find on the map of North 
America (Fig. 42, following j). 40). Those islands are the highest 

B 1 



NORTH AMERICA 




Fig. 1. 
A small picture of the West Indian region 
as it would appear if the ocean water 
were removed. Notice that the islands 
rest on a lofty ridge rising from the 
ocean bottom. 



parts of a mountain chain. They seem to be separated only because 
the ridges upon which they rest do not rise high enough to reach 
above the water (Fig. 1). 

Although in early times North America consisted of mountain 
crests forming chains of islands, finally, after many changes, the 

mountains rose higher, forming a 
continuous range in the East, and 
other ranges in the West. Then 
the plains between the mountains 
slowly emerged from the ocean, 
and a large part of the continent 
came into view. 

The Coal Period. — Ages after 
the beginning, a period arrived 
when in the northern part of North 
America it was much warmer than 
now, and the rains were far heavier. 
During that period our coal was 
made out of plants. There is good proof that the coal used in 
our stoves and furnaces is composed of plant remains. Beneath 
the coal beds, in the rock which was once soil, roots of plants may 
still be seen, while stems of plants, and even trunks of trees changed 
to coal, reach up into the coal beds. 
Also a careful examination with the 
microscope, or at times even with the 
naked eye, shows that coal is com- 
posed of bits of plants closely pressed 
together. Frequently the full form 
of a fern or leaf may be seen (Fig. 2). 
As the crust of the earth shrinks 
and wrinkles, the land is raised and 
lowered. Even now it is slowly mov- 
ing in some places, and was doing the 
same during the coal period. At that 
time some of the old sea-bottom was 
raised above the water, forming extensive plains in the eastern part 
of North America. Plants had long been growing; and these plains 
were so low and level that vast swamps were produced (Fig. 3), 
on which the vegetation was extremely rank, like a tropical jungle. 
After the swamp plants had grown for hundreds of years, the plains 




f./^ 



i 



Fig. 2. 
Rock containing a fossil fern which 
grew in the swamps of the coal 
period. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 



sank beneath the sea, and the vegetation became covered with 
layers of sand, gravel, and mud, v^^hich have since hardened into rock. 

After another long 
period the ■ sea-bottom 
emerged once more, and 
the dense swamp vegeta- 
tion returned ; but this 
time the plants grew with 
their roots in the ocean 
mud which had buried 
the earlier swamp. After 
many more years the plains 
again sank, and the swamp 
vegetation was buried as 
before. This rising and 
sinking of the land con- 
tinued for ages, one set of layers of rock, soil, and vegetation being 
covered up by another, until many such sets were formed. 




Fig. 3. 

The way the coal swamps appeared, so far as we can 
tell from the fossils which have been preserved. 



Though the swamps were, no doubt, somewhat similar to those which 
may now be seen in many places, the vegetation grew far more thickly, 
perhaps even more thickly than in the jungles of India or the everglades 

of Florida. Also the plants 
were so different from those 
of the present (Fig. 4), that 
not a single species now liv- 
ing grew in the coal swamps. 
When the plants died, 
they fell into the water, mak- 
ing a woody matting which 
did not fully decay, because 
the water prevented air from 
reaching it. If it had been 
dug up and dried, it might 
have made good fuel. Indeed, 
it is now the custom in Ire- 
land, Norway, and some 
other cool, moist lands to 
dig such matter out of the swamps and dry it, forming jjea^, a fuel used 
for cooking and heating. 

Some of the poorer coals of the West, known as lignite, are little more 
than peat beds partly changed to mineral coal. Other coal, called anthrco- 
cite, found especially in the mountains of Pennsylvania, has been changed 




Fig. 4. 

A view in the Dismal Swamp of Virginia. Compare 
Fig. 3 with this to see how different the trees are. 



NORTH AMERICA 



SO greatly that it is as hard as some rocks, and is known as Jiarcl coal. 
But most of the coal that is mined, — as that of western Pennsylvania 
and the Central States, — although quite like a mineral, and harder than 
lignite, is not so hard as anthracite. This is called soft or bituminous 
coal. 

The woody matting that gathered in some of the swamps grew' 
to be scores of feet in thickness ; but, on being covered up, it was 
pressed more tightly together. As the number of layers above 
increased, causing the pressure to become very great, it gradually 
changed into coal, making coal beds that are often from six to twelve 
feet in thickness. 

All this time, and at other periods during the formation of the continent, 
iron, copper, gold, silver, building stones, and other materials that we need 
every day, were also being slowly formed in the rocks ; but we cannot 
now tell their story. 

The Mountains and Plateaus. — During the millions of years that 
the continent was growing to its present form, there were rising, in 

the East and West, moun- 
tain systems and surround- 
ing plateaus that were to 
have a great influence upon 
our climate, and therefore 
upon our crops, our ani- 
mals, and ourselves. Be- 
ing very old and much 
worn down, the eastern 
mountains, called the Ap- 
palachians (Fig. 10), are 
neither very high nor very 
rugged, though they have 
some jDeaks which reach 
more than a mile above sea 
level. The western moun- 
tains, or Cordilleras, being 
younger and therefore less worn, are more rugged, and have peaks 
rising three miles and more above sea level. At the base of the 
Appalachians is a narrow plateau rarely more than fourteen hundred 
feet high ; but the Cordilleras tower above a broad plateau which is 
itself more than a mile in height, or as high as the mountain peaks of 
the East. 




Pig. 5. 

Tilted layers in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado. 
They were deposited as horizontal beds in the sea, 
as those of the Colorado plateau were (Fig. 7) ; 
but, during the mountain folding, they have been 
turned up on end, and then worn away and irregu- 
larly carved by the rains. 



PHYSIOGEAPHT OF NORTH AMERICA 5 

Many of the rocks of the mountains and plateaus were deposited 
as sediment in the sea and afterward raised to their present position 
by the movements of the earth's crust. In spite of their great eleva- 
tion, the plateaus have remained level because the rock layers, or 
strata, of which they are made, Avere kept in a horizontal or level 
position while being uplifted. This can be seen where rivers have 
cut deep channels in the earth, showing the layers of rock to be nearly 
as level as when they were a part of the ocean floor. 

On the other hand, the wrinkling of the earth's crust has in 
some places broken and folded the rock layers, and formed lofty 
mountain ranges in which the strata have been tilted and upturned, 
instead of remaining level (Fig. 5). 

A part of the height of mountains is due to the fact that they rest 
upon a platform of tablelands about them. Therefore a mountain crest 
two miles above sea level 7nay really rise less than a mile above the pla- 
teau at its base. 

Mountains are not nearly so high as they would be if they had not 
been attacked for ages by the weather and the rivers. Not only have 
they been loivered by these means, but also greatly carved and sculptured, 
being cut into ridges and peaks, and crossed by deep canyons which the 
rivers have dug out. 

After mountains have ceased rising, their peaks are lowered, and their 
valleys broadened, until they lose much of their mountain character, as in 
the case of the Appalachians. Indeed, they may even be reduced to a 
series of low hills, as in southern New England, which is really an ancient 
mountain region now worn down to its very roots. 

The folding, breaking, and sculpturing of the mountain rocks have 
had an important effect upon mining. As you see from Figure 7, these 
changes often bring to view valuable minerals which were formed ages 
ago and are now deeply buried in the strata. 

As we have seen, some mineral deposits, like coal, were laid down in 
beds between other layers of rock ; but many valuable minerals, such as 
gold, silver, and copper ores, were deposited in cracks of the mountain 
rock, forming veins. Into these cracks hot water, often heated by deeply 
buried masses of lava, has brought valuable metals and deposited them in 
veins. Iron ore also has been deposited by water in beds and veins, though 
not always by hot water. 

Volcanoes. — Hundreds of mountain peaks in the West, instead 
of being made in the manner just described, are volcanoes. These 
are built of molten rock that has been forced to the surface from 
within the earth. Though no longer active, these peaks are knoivn 
to be volcanoes because of their cone shape, the hollows or craters in 



6 NORTH AMEBIC A 

their tops, and the lava and volcanic ash, or blown-up lava, of which 
they are made. 

Doubtless some of these volcanoes have recently erupted ; indeed, one, 
Mt. St. Helens in Washington, is reported to have been in eruption about 
a half century ago. Another, near Mt. Shasta in California (Fig. 6), poured 
forth lava a very short time ago. This is known because the lava flow 
dammed up a stream, forming a lake whose waters rose into the surround- 
ing forest, and killed the trees ; but the trees still stand in the lake, not 
having had time to decay. 

Hundreds of thousands of square miles of this western country are 
covered by lava flows. The soil produced by decay of the lava is often 
extremely fertile, and that is one of the chief reasons why the central and 




Fig. 6. 

Mt. Shasta, California, one of the great volcanic cones of the West, 14,380 feet high, and 
made entirely of lava and volcanic ash. A smaller cone is seen on the right. 

eastern part of the state of Washington, which is largely covered with it, 
has become noted for its fruit and wheat. There the lava flowed out from 
great cracks or fissures and flooded immense areas of country. The area 
of the lava flows in the Columbia and Snake river valleys is more than 
twenty-five times as great as the area of Massachusetts. 

The Trough between the Two Mountain Systems. — From the 
mountain systems of the East and West, the land slopes gently 
toward the Mississippi River (Fig. 10), which flows in the trough 
made by the uplift of the two sides of the continent. Measure the 
width of this trough on the map of the United States (Fig. 45, 
preceding p. 41). 

This extensive lowland has had a long history, like the mountains. 
In the early ages so much of it was under water that a great sea 
extended from where the Gulf of Mexico now lies to the Arctic 
Ocean. In the rock layers are found many remains, or fossils, of 




Fig. 7. 

A section in the earth, where the rocks are folded, to show how a bed of valuable mineral 
such as the black layer, may be brought to light by folding and river cutting, whih 
elsewhere it is deeply buried. 



M 



'im 



Fig. 8. 

Section across the United States, to show the two highlands and the great trough between 
A, Appalachians; M, Mississippi; i?, Rocky Mountains. 




Fig. 9. 

Model showing the distance which the Great Ice Sheet reached in United States. 
(Model made by E. E. Howell, Washington, D.C.) 




Fi< 
Relief Map of 




-'^r-'^^T*^.' 




-■| 



,', -v,vV 




h America. 




Fig. 11. 
Some hummocks in a moraine formed by the Great Glacier near Ithaca, N.Y. 




Fig. 12. 

New England lake formed by a dam of drift left by the glacier. It is very irregular 
because the water behind the dam has risen into many valleys, leaving only the hilltops 
above the surface. 




Ijicture of the irregular coast of southern Alaska, near Sitka, where the sinking of the 
land has drowned the valleys, leaving only the hilltoiDS projecting above the sea. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 7 

shells, corals, and fish that lived in the sea of this ancient time. 
Upon dying and dropping to the bottom, these animals were en- 
tombed in the beds which have since been hardened to rock. 

After a time most of this sea bottom was raised to form dry 
land, although a part of it — from the Gulf of Mexico to southern 
Illinois — remained under water for a long time afterward. Into 
this sea the Mississippi discharged its floods and dropped its load 
of soil, swept from the distant fields and mountains. As time went 
on, the river filled up the sea and formed flood plains, which — 
raised by a slight uplift — are among the most fertile lands of our 
country. And now the river seems bent on filling up the Gulf itself. 

Although the mountains and plateaus of our country are so far 
away from the lowlands, they have a great influence upon them. 
The Mississippi Valley, in all but its southern part, is in a belt of 
the earth where most of the winds blow from the west. Since 
these winds blow from the Pacific Ocean, they are at first damp ; 
but upon reaching the western highlands, they are compelled to 
drop much of their moisture, and then they pass on into the Mis- 
sissippi Valley as dry winds. This causes the plains and plateaus 
of the northwest to be dry or arid. The eastern and southern 
portions of the valley have a more humid climate. The reasons for 
this are that this region is so near the Gulf and the Atlantic, and 
is separated from the latter by such low mountains, that damp 
ocean winds are able to reach it. 

In spite of the fact that most of the West is arid, many rivers 
have their sources among the high mountains. Notice, for instance, 
how many tributaries of the Mississippi rise among the mountain 
ranges (map. Fig. 45, preceding p. 41). This water carries sediment 
for hundreds of miles, building it into flood plains and deltas. From 
this it is evident that the highlands not only supply the Mississippi 
with much of its water, but also with some of the soil which has 
made such fertile farm land. 

The direction in which the ranges extend is a matter of great impor- 
tance, also. Since the mountains run north and south, the warm south 
(vinds find no highlands to check their northward course. Therefore, they 
are able to carry warmth and moisture a great distance, even far into the 
northern part of the United States. In consequence, the Mississippi 
Valley is one of the largest and finest farming sections in the world, jjro- 
ducing a great variety of crops. Where the summers are shortest, though 
still warm, excellent wheat is raised ; farther south, corn is the principal 



8 NORTH AMERICA 

crop ; and in the southern part, where the summers are longest and hot- 
test, tobacco, cotton, sugar-cane, and rice are grown. 

How different it would be if a great mountain system extended east 
and west across the continent ! The warm summer winds could not, then, 
carry their warmth and moisture so far north ; neither could the north 
winds, which are cool in summer and cold in winter, reach so far south. 
The north winds are very important ; they moderate the heat of summer 
and bring cool weather in winter. Sometimes they do damage in winter 
by causing destructive frosts, even as far south as Florida. Then the 
orange and lemon trees suffer greatly. But they also do good, for too 
much heat takes away the vigor of the people, while cool air makes them 
more active. 



^ 



The Great Ice Age. — Long after the coal beds were formed, and 
the great highlands and valleys were built, another very important 
event happened in the preparation of this continent for our 

home. That was 
the formation of 
a great ice sheet 
ov glacier, which 
covered a large 
part of northern 
North America. 
This glacier had 
much to do with 
making the 
lakes, waterfalls, 
and even the soil 
itself, in that 
section. 

An ice sheet 
similar to that 
one may still be 

seen in Greenland (Figs. 14 and 15). Excepting along the very 
coast, this immense island is buried beneath a sheet of ice which 
has an area about ten times as great as that of New York State. 

The Greenland glacier is made of snow which has fallen on the high 
interior in such immense quantities that the pressure upon the under part 
has changed it to ice, as pressure from your hands will change a snowball 
to ice. As the snow collects and becomes ice, it spreads out, or floivs, from 
the interior toward the coast, much as a piece of wax may be luacle to flow 
if a weight is placed upon it. Moving toward the sea, the glacier drags 




Fig. 14. 

A picture of tbe Cornell glacier in Greenland. It is a great waste 
of ice, slowly moving down from the interior to the coast and 
ending in the sea, where icebergs break off and float away. 
Some of these may be seen in the picture. 




PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 9 

away the soil, tears off fragments of the rock, and scours the rock layers, 
as if it were a great sand-paper. The movement is very slow, yet the ice 
is always pushing onward to the sea, where enormous icebergs are continu- 
ally breaking off and floating away (Fig. 14). 

The glacier which formerly extended over a part of our continent 
was likewise made of snow. It covered most of northeastern 
America, reaching as far south as New York City and the Ohio 
River, but not so far south in the Northwest (Fig. 9). Being over 
a mile deep in its thickest part, and in consequence very heavy, the 
glacier swept away the soil which had previously been made. Not 
only this, but, by the help 
of rock fragments held fast 
in its bottom, it scraped 
off pieces of the solid rock 
and carried them forward 
also. 

Although the glacier was 
always pushing southward 
into our country, its southern 
end was continually melting 
away, owing to the warmer 'i'lie ice front of a part of Cornell glacier (Fig. 14) , with 
climate which it met. At moraine at its base, where rock fragments fall from 

the melting glacier. The dark lower part of the 
times the movement was ]USt glacier is fined with pieces of rock, 
rapid enough to supply the 

waste due to this melting, so that the edge remained in nearly the same 
position for years. All this time the sand, gravel, and rock, which had 
been carried along in the ice, were being piled up along the line where the 
glacier melted, forming a great mass called a moraine (Figs. 11 and 15). 
The moraine hills, or hummocks, of gravel and clay were often built to S, 
height of one or two hundred feet. 

After standing for a while and building a moraine in one place, the 
glacier front often advanced to the south, or melted away toward the north, 
building up other irregular piles of moraine hummocks. 

During the thousands of years that the glacier lasted, it carried 
millions of tons of clay and rock from one place to another and built 
many low hills. As it slij^ped over the surface, it ground boulders 
and pebbles together and rubbed them against the solid rock, scratch- 
ing and grooving it (Fig. 16). Scratches thus made may still be 
seen pointing northward, toward the place from which the glacier 
moved. This work of rasping, digging, carrying, and dumping done 



Fiu. 13. 




Fig. 16. 
Scratches on 



10 NOBTH AMERICA 

by the glacier has led to its being compared to a combined file, plough, 
and dump cart of immense size. 

Finally, after thousands of years, the great ice sheet melted away. 
No one is able to say why it came or why it went away ; but that it was 
here and did the work described, all who have studied the subject are 
fully convinced. 

It was this glacier which caused the great number of lakes in the 
northeastern part of North America. Minnesota alone is said to 

have ten thousand, and in New 

England there are also thousands 

(Fig. 12 and Fig. 58, p. 56); but 

most of the states outside of the 

glacial region have extremely few. 

The manner in which these 

lakes were formed is as follows : 

The load of clay and boulders, or 

rock made by ^^^^^^^^^^^V drift^ as it is Called, was dumped 

the glacier in ^^^^^^ irregularly over the land. It 

sometimes partly filled valleys and 
built up dams, behind which ponds and lakes collected. The glacier 
also formed lake basins by digging, or ploughing, directly into the 
rock. Even the Great Lakes did not exist before the glacier came ; 
their basins occupy broad river valleys which have been blocked by 
dams of drift and deepened by the ploughing of the Great Ice Sheet. 
The glacier also had an important influence upon our manufactur- 
ing. Its load of rock fragments often filled parts of valleys so that, 
after the ice was gone, the streams were compelled to seek new 
courses. These courses often lay down steep slopes or across buried 
ledges, over which the water tumbled in a succession of rapids and 
falls. Even the great cataract of Niagara was caused in this way, 
and the same is true of many of the falls and rapids of hilly New 
England and New York. The many lakes act as storehouses to 
keep the noisy falls and rapids well supplied with water. For these 
reasons New England and New York have such abundant water- 
power that they early grew to be the greatest manufacturing centres 
of the Union. In sections of the country not reached by the glacier, 
rapids and falls are much less common. Did the glacier cover the 
land on which you live ? 

A third important influence of the glacier was upon the soil. In 
most other parts of the country the soil has been made by the decay 



PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 



11 



of rock (see First Book, p. 2) ; but in the glacial region the decayed 
rock was swept away and replaced by drift brought by the glacier. 
This was made by the grinding of rocks together, much as flour is 
made by grinding wheat ; in fact, glacial soil is sometimes called 
rock flour. As the glacier scraped along, it ground an enormous 
quantity of rock to bits, so that when it melted, a layer of drift was 
left, in some places i^eaching a depth of several hundred feet. Most 
of the clays from which bricks are made in the North were also 
brought by the ice sheet. 

With the melting of the glacier, much water was produced. This 
washed out and carried off a great deal of clay, in some places leaving 
extensive sand and gravel plains, where the soil is not very fertile. 

The bits of ground-up rock left by the glacier have an important effect 
upon the soil. Since these fragments were gathered up from many places, 
and from many different kinds of rock, they sometimes cause a fertile soil 
in places where the decay of 
the rocks would have naturally 
caused a sterile soil. The 
constant rusting, or decaying, 
of these rock fragments sup- 
plies the soil with plant food ; 
and for this reason the glacial 
soils are usually fertile year 
after year. But, on the other 
hand, in some places the 
glacier failed to grind the 
rock into tiny bits, leaving 
pebbles and even large boulders to cover the ground and prove a great 
nuisance to the farmer (Fig. 17). 

The Coast Line. — In studying about the Mississippi Valley and 
the formation of coal, we have seen that the land and sea bottom are 
not fixed, but that they often slowly rise or sink. 

Such changes in the land level are even now in progress in many 
places, though so slowly that it requires years, and even centuries, to 
notice them. For instance, along the coast of New Jersey the land 
is sinking at the rate of about two feet a century, while the land 
around Hudson Bay is rising. 

Some of the recent changes in the level of the land have had an 
important effect upon the coast line. For example, the reason we 
find so many islands and peninsulas along the northeastern coast 
(Fig. 42) is that this section has been lowered several hundred feet. 
By this means the ocean water has been allowed to enter the valleys. 




Fig. 17. 

A field on Cape Ann, Mass., where the 
many large boulders. 



dacier left 



12 NORTH AMEBICA 

while the higher land between them extends above the water in the 
form of peninsulas, capes, and islands. 

The peninsulas of Labrador and Nova Scotia, and the hundreds 
of islands along the northeastern coast, including Newfoundland, owe 
their existence to this sinking. The irregular Pacific coast from 
Puget Sound northward (Fig. 13) was produced in the same way. 

By this sinking of the land many good harbors were made, the 
best ones being where rivers enter the sea. When the land was 
higher, the streams carved out broad valleys, into which, when the 
land sank, the sea water entered, forming bays and harbors. That is 
the way the Gulf of St. Lawrence was formed ; also New York, 
Delaware, Chesapeake, and San Francisco bays, as well as the many 
excellent harbors of the East. What rivers carved out the bays 
mentioned? (See maps. Figs. 42, 44, and 63.) 

One reason for so few good harbors along the coast of the South- 
ern States is that the land in this section has been risiyig out of the 
sea. Just off the coast is a broad ocean-bottom plain where the water 
is shallow (Figs. 43, 63, and 86), while still farther out, the bot- 
tom slopes rapidly and the ocean becomes very deep. Upon this sea- 
bottom plain, called the continental shelf, layers of rock bits, or 

sediment, are being de- 
posited, much as layers 
of rock were formed on 
the sea bottom during 
the coal period. If the 
continental shelf should 
be raised, it would form 
a great level plain. 



Fig. 18. That part of the 

A part of the raised sea bottom which forms the level Southern States wllich 
plain of Florida. 

borders the Gulf of 

Mexico and the ocean was once a portion of this ocean-bottom plain ; 

but it has been raised until it is now a low, level plain (Fig. 18). 

Since the continental shelf is so level, when a part of it was lifted 

above the water there were few places for deep inlets, bays, and 

harbors. After being raised, the coast was slightly lowered ; but 

the bays thus formed are shallow and the harbors poor. 

The level plain of the Florida peninsula is also a sea bottom that 

has been lifted above the ocean. Many of the lakes and swamps 

which abound in that region are believed to be due to the shallow 



PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 13 

basins built by the irregular deposit of sediment on the old sea 
floor. 

Size, Shape, and Position. — North America is third in size among 
the six continents of the earth. By reference to the tables in the 
Appendix, find which are larger and which smaller. 

After being changed in shape during millions of years, owing to 
the rising and sinking of the land, it at present has the form of a 
triangle with the broadest portion in the north. Draw the triangle. 
Compare its shape with that of South America and Africa (Fig. 512). 
The northern part is so wide that Alaska extends to within fifty 
miles of Asia ; but Labrador is over two thousand miles away from 
Europe. The distance from Alaska to Asia is so short that the early 
ancestors of our Indians and Eskimos probably first reached North 
America by crossing over from Asia. On account of the greater dis- 
tance across the Atlantic, Europeans for a long time did not know 
that North America existed ; but it is certain that the Norsemen 
from Norway visited our shores nearly five hundred years before 
Columbus discovered the continent. 

Those portions of North America which are nearest to Asia and 
Europe are so cold that few people live there. Farther south, where 
most of the inhabitants live, the continents are spread farther apart, 
as you will see by examining a globe. The broad Atlantic must be 
crossed in passing from Europe to America ; this fact helps to 
explain why the Spanish colonies were able to win their indepen- 
dence from Spain, and the United States from England. The dis- 
tance across the sea was too great to send large armies and supplies 
for them. 

This separation of Europe from America has also helped in the 
development of our industries. At first, the colonists brought even 
bricks, doors, and timber from Europe ; but although the ocean is 
an excellent highway, it is expensive to send goods such long dis- 
tances. Therefore the settlers soon learned to raise and make most 
of the articles that they needed for food, clothing, and shelter. 

Nevertheless, the ocean is such an excellent highway that ships 
are able to sail across it in every direction and bring what we really 
need, or carry back such products as cotton and tobacco, which 
Europeans desire. Ships have also brought to us the hundreds of 
thousands of English, Irish, Germans, French, Swedes, and others 
who have settled and developed our country, and whose descendants 
are its citizens. Since Europe is our mother land, it has been, and 



14 NORTH AMERICA 

is still, very important to keep in close touch with its various 
nations. This has been made possible partly by the shortness of 
the journey, now that vessels are moved by steam, and partly by the 
excellent harbors caused by the sinking of our coast. 

The Pacific Ocean is much wider than the Atlantic (see a globe), and 
therefore much more difficult to cross. Although the shores of Asia which 
face North America are densely settled, until recently we have not needed 
to have much commerce with the inhabitants of that continent because 
they were not very progressive. Now, however, the Japanese have 
adopted the methods of modern civilization, and we have come into con- 
trol of the Philippine Islands, so that many of our ships cross the Pacific. 

South America is also easily reached by water, and there is much trade 
with the various countries of that continent. Although South America is 
joined to North America by the narrow Isthmus of Panama, there is at 
present no railway connecting the two continents, though one is being 
planned. This isthmus is a great barrier to ocean commerce between 
eastern and western United States and between the Eastern States and 
Asia. It is very uarrow, and in places only two or three hundred feet 
high; yet, because it is there, ships must travel thousands of miles around 
South America. A railway crosses it, and ship canals, one across the 
isthmus, and another farther north, may be constructed. Of what advan- 
tage would these be ? 

Summary. — So we see that our continent, as we know it, has 
not been here from the beginning ; instead of that, millions of 
years have been required to prepare it for us. Ocean bottoms 
have been lifted into mountains, plateaus, and valleys ; coal beds, 
building stones, and valuable minerals have been formed ; a mighty 
glacier has swept over the country, grinding rock into powder 
and causing lakes, water-routes, falls, and rapids ; and the coast 
has been sinking here and rising there, producing fine harbors in 
some places and greatly increasing the extent of the plains in others. 
Our \evj position, separated by the ocean from the Old World, 
and yet enabling us to reach it when it is necessary, is an advantage. 

Review Questions. — (1) What was the condition of North America in early 
times ? (2) What is coal made from ? Tell how it was formed. (3) What proofs 
are there of this formation ? (4) What is peat ? (5) Name and locate our two 
cliief mountain systems. (6) How high are the plateaus at the base of each? 
(7) Explain why the plateaus are so level in sjaite of their height. (8) How 
have the mountains been made? (9) Explain what effect this has had upon min- 
ing. (10) Tell about the volcanoes of the West. (11) Why is the Mississippi 
Valley called a trough ? (12) What was its condition in early times? (13) How 
was the interior sea finally changed to dry land ? (14) Mention some ways in 
which the mountains control the Mississippi Valley. (15) What differences would 



PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA 15 

follow if the mountain ranges extended east and west? (16) Describe the Green- 
land glacier. (17) How far did the great American ice sheet reach? How deep 
was it? (18) What are moraines? (19) What do the scratches on the rocks tell 
us about the glacier? (20) Why is a glacier compared to a plough? A file? A 
dump cart? (21) In what ways did the glacier cause lakes? (22) Falls and 
rapids ? (23) Soil ? (24) What effect has the glacial soil upon farming ? (25) Tell 
the whole story of the glacier. (26) Why are there so many islands, peninsulas, 
bays, and harbors in the northeast? (27) Name some of them. (28) How have 
some of our largest bays been made? Name them. (29) Why are there so few 
harbors on our southern coast? (30) What is the cause of the southern plains? 
(81) What is the continental shelf? (32) How does North America compai'e in 
size with the other continents? (33) How far is the mainland from Asia and 
Europe ? (34) Show how our position is a favorable one. (35) What is the 
influence of the Isthmus of Panama? (36) In what zones is North America? 

Suggestions. — (1) Make a collection of different kinds of coal. (2) Examine 
some pieces of soft coal closely to see if you can discover plant remains. (3) Ob- 
tain some peat. (4) Learn what you can about coal mining. (5) Examine layers 
of rock in your neighborhood to see if they are horizontal or tilted. See if they 
contain fossils. (6) Make a drawing similar to Figure 10. (7) Make a modle 
of a volcano out of sand or clay. (8) What becomes of the Greenland icebergs ? 
(9) Make a map showing the extent of the American glacier. (10) What signs 
of the glacier, if any, can you find in your neighborhood? (11) Name several 
great cities that have grown up about our Northern harbors. Name some in the 
South. (12) Draw an outline map of the northeastern coast, and another of the 
southern coast, to see how they differ. (13) How many days long is the voyage, 
on a fast steamer, from New York to Liverpool? How many miles an hour does 
the steamer go? How many miles does that make the distance? (14) How long 
is the journey from San Francisco to Manila? (15) From New York to Manila by 
going eastward? Through what waters would one pass on such a voyage? 

For References to Books and Articles, see the Teacher's Book of this series. . 



II. PLANTS, ANIMALS, AND PEOPLES 



The climate of a region is one of the most important facts con- 
cerning it ; for where temperature and rainfall are favorable, plants 
usually grow luxuriantly. And since plants furnish animals with 
food, where vegetation is luxuriant, animal life may be abundant. 

Since North America extends far north and south, and possesses 
lofty mountain ranges and enclosed plateaus, it has a great variety 

of climate, and, therefore, a 
great variety of plant and 
animal life. 

Plants of the North. —The 
northern part of the continent 
is bitterly cold. In that region 
there is a vast area where the 
soil is always frozen, except- 
ing at the very surface, which 
thaws out for a few weeks in 
summer. On account of the 
frost, trees such as we are 
familiar with cannot grow. 
Their roots are unable to 
penetrate the frozen subsoil 
and to find the necessary plant 
food. There are some wil- 
lows, birches, and a few other plants with woody tissue, bark, 
leaves, and fruit ; but instead of towering scores of feet into the air, 
they creep along the surface like vines, and rise but an inch or two 
above ground. Only by thus hugging the earth can they escape the 
fierce blasts of winter and find protection beneath the snow. 

A few grasses and small flowering plants grow rapidly, produce 
flowers, even close by the edge of snowbanks (Fig. 19), and then 
pass away, all within the few short weeks of summer. Some of 
these plants produce berries, which after ripening are preserved by 
the snows ; thus, when the birds arrive in the spring, they find food 
peady for them. 

\6 




Fig. 19. 

Arctic poppies growing on tbe edge of & 
snowbank. 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 



17 




Fig. 20. 
Walrus on the Arctic floe ice. 



Animals of the North. — The summer development of insects is 
rapid, like the growth of plants. As the snow melts and the surface 
thaws, the ground becomes wet and swampy, and countless millions 
of insects appear. Among 
them the most common is, 
apparently, the mosquito. 
There are few parts of the 
world where this creature is a 
worse pest than on the barrens 
of North America and the tun- 
dras of Europe and Asia, as 
these treeless, frozen lands are 
called. 

Few large land animals are 
able to thrive in so cold a 
climate and where there is 
such an absence of plant food. 
The reindeer, or caribou, the 
musk-ox, polar bear, white fox, 
and Arctic hare are the largest 
four-footed land annuals (Fig. 21) ; and the crow, sparrow, and 
ptarmigan are the most common land birds. 

The ptarmigan changes its plumage to white in winter, and other 
animals of the Arctic, such as the fox, polar bear, baby seal, and hare, 
are also white. This serves to conceal them, in that land of snow and 
ice, so that they may hide from their enemies, or steal upon their prey 
unawares. 

The tiny white fox feeds upon birds and other animal food ; but the 
other land animals, except the polar bear, live upon plants, such as berries, 
grass, and moss. The caribou finds a kind of plant, called "reindeer 
moss," which grows upon rocks that rise above the deep winter snows. 
If it were not for this, the reindeer would not be able to live through the 
long winter. 

While some animals live upon the land in the Arctic regions, 
many more have their homes in the sea, because there, excepting at 
the very surface, the temperature never descends below the freezing 
point. Therefore, there is plenty of animal life of all sizes, from the 
very tiniest forms to the whale, the largest animal in the world. 
During the winter the surface of the sea freezes over ; and then 
many of the sea animals migrate southward. Even the huge walrus 



18 NORTH AMEBIC A 

(Fig. 20) moves clumsily toward a more favorable climate. The 
birds go farthest, especially the geese, ducks, and gulls, which 
fly to Labrador, New England, North Carolina, and even farther 
south, to spend the winter where their food is not covered by ice. 

Sea birds exist by hundreds of thousands (Fig. 21), building their 
nests upon rocky cliffs in immense numbers. Indeed, they are so numer- 
ous that, when suddenly frightened, as by the firing of a gun, they rise in 
a dense cloud that obscures the sun. Then, with their cries they produce a 
din that is almost deafening. In the water seals (Figs. 178 and 266) and 
walruses live, the former being so valuable for their oil and skins that men 
go on long voyages to obtain them. The oil comes from a layer of fat, or 
" blubber," just beneath the skin, that serves to keep out the cold. 

The seal is the most common of the Arctic sea animals, and is the 
principal food of the Eskimo and the polar bear (Fig. 266). The bear, pro- 
tected from observation by his white color, stealthily creeps upon his prey, 
asleep upon the ice ; or, he patiently watches until his victim swims within 
reach, and then seizes him in his powerful claws. 

Plants and Animals in Western North America. — A large area in 
western United States and Mexico has a very slight rainfall, although 
its temperature is agreeable. This arid area hi eludes most of the 
territory having less than twenty inches of rain (Fig. 257, p. 225). 
In some places, as near the Pacific coast and upon the mountain tops 
and high plateaus, there is rain enough for forests to thrive ; but 
in most parts of the Far West the climate is so dry that there are no 
trees whatsoever. Indeed, some portions of the West are desolate 
in the extreme and almost devoid of life, both plant and animal ; in 
other words, they are true deserts. 

One common plant is the bunch grass, so called because it grows 
in little tufts or bunches. The sage bush, a plant with a pale green 
leaf, named because of its sagelike odor, is found throughout most 
of this arid region. Other common plants are the mesquite, the 
century plant with its sharp-pointed leaves (Fig. 186, p. 174), and 
the cactus with its numerous thorns. In favorable spots, especially 
in the warm Southwest, the mesquite grows to large size ; and the 
cactus, which in the North is always low and represented by only a 
few kinds, in the Southwest, as in Arizona, grows in great variety 
and, in some cases,' even to the height of trees (Fig. 23). 

On account of the extreme dryness of the climate, these plants have a 
severe struggle for existence, and adopt peculiar means for protecting 







ARCTIC FOX 






PTARMIGAN 




GUILLEMOT 



CARIBOU 



MUSK OX 



The M.N.Co,Bufi 



Fig. 21. 

Some of the animals of the North. The great auk had such small wings that it 
could not fly. It was killed in great numbers by sailors, and has been com- 
pletely exterminated. 




■^, 






BIG-HORN 5HEEP 

/ 




ELK 



m 



m^'^'^^^^ 



GRIZZLY BEAR 



PRAIRIE DOG 



Fig. 22. 
Some of the animals of the plateaus and mountains of the Far West. 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 



19 



themselves. For example, the cactus, unlike other plants, has no leaves. 

It thus exposes little surface to the air for evaporation. In its great, 

fleshy stem it stores water to use through the long, dry seasons, while 

spines protect it from animals in search of 

food. The mesquite also protects itself by 

spines, and in addition has such large roots 

that the part of the plant under ground is 

greater than that above. The roots of this 

plant are an important source of wood for 

fuel. Some of these plants, as mesquite, 

are so bitter that they are not eaten by 

animals. 




Fig. 23. 



Giant cactus in the desert of south- 
western Arizona. 



Animals eat few of the arid land 
plants except the grasses, which were 
once the food of the buffalo, or bison 
(Fig. 26), and are now the support of 
cattle and sheep (Figs. 114 and 188). 
The bison, whose home was on the 
prairies and the arid plains east of the 
Rocky Mountains, is now gone ; and 
few large animals are left in its place. 
The cowardly prairie wolf, or coyote^ 
and the graceful antelope and the 
rabbits upon which it feeds, are the 
most abundant (Fig. 22). Among the rabbits is the long-legged 
jack rabbit, which leaps across the plains with astonishing speed, 
with its huge ears thrown back so far that they do not retard its 
progress. 

The fierce puma, or mountain lion, still lives among the mountains, 
and also the ugly cinnamon and grizzly bears (Fig. 22), though the 
latter are now rare and difficult to find. Deer and elk inhabit the 
forest-covered mountains of southern Canada and northwestern 
United States ; and among the higher peaks a few mountain goats 
and sheep still live on the more inaccessible rocky crags (Fig. 22). 
The sheep have huge horns much prized by hunters. 

Plants and Animals of the Tropical Zone. — Contrast the life in 
the frozen North and the arid West with that in Central America 
and southern Mexico. In these regions, which are situated in the 
torrid zone, the temperature is always warm ; and the rainfall, espe- 
cially on the eastern coast, is so heavy that all the conditions are 
favorable for dense vegetation. 



20 NORTH AMERICA 

. Indeed, the tangle of growth in the forests is so great that it is practi- 
cally impossible to pass through it without hewing one's way. Besides 
trees an.d underbrush, there are quantities of ferns, vines, and flowers, 
many of which hang from the trees with their roots in the air instead of in 
the ground. They are able to live in this way on account of the damp air. 
Among the trees are the valuable rosewood, mahogany, ebony, and rubber 
tree ; and among the flowers are the beautiful orchids. On account of the 
continual warmth and moisture, many plants, like the banana for instance, 
bear fruit throughout the year. 

In the miclst of such luxuriant vegetation, animal life is wonder- 
fully varied and abundant. There are the tapir, monkey, and 
jaguar (Fig. 24) ; brilliantly colored birds, such as parrots, paroquets, 
and humming birds ; and millions of insects. Scorpions and centi- 
pedes abound, and ants exist in countless numbers, some in the ground, 
others in decayed vegetation. Serpents, some of them poisonous, are 
common in the forests ; and in the rivers are fish and alligators, the 
latter being found as far north as Florida and Louisiana. 

Plants and Animals in the Temperate Part of North America. — 
Between the frigid and torrid zones, and both east and west of the 
arid region, is an area of moderate rainfall and temperature where 
the vegetation and animals differ from those of the other sections. 
Beginning in the warm South and passing northward, we find that 
both animals and plants grow less numerous and less varied until, 
near the Arctic zone, they become scarce and few in kind. The 
pines and oaks of the United States give place to the spruce, balsam 
fir, and maple in Canada ; then these gradually become stunted and 
disappear, and beyond this the barrens are reached (p. 16). 

The animals that once inhabited the broad temperate zone have 
been mostly destroyed, although some still live in the forest and 
mountain region. They are carefully protected by state laws, which 
prohibit shooting except at certain seasons, and then only in small 
numbers. When America was first visited by Europeans, these 
woods abounded in deer, moose, caribou, wolves, and foxes (Fig. 25). 
Beavers built dams across the streams, the mink and otter fished 
in the waters, and bears roamed at will. Among the birds, the 
eagle was common (Fig 25), and wild pigeons and turkeys were 
so abundant that they were one of the principal foods of the early 
settlers. 

Some believe that at one time most of the eastern United States was 
wooded, including the fertile prairies of the Mississippi Valley, from which 



HU^^MiNG B'RU 



:-'7^^ 



5«f£% / 






.^/T 




AN/ 



ALLiuATOk 



Fig. 24. 
A few of the animals of the tropical forests. 



■th % '* r-"'N"F 



^ll— '-^ 







HEDGEHOG 



Fig. 25. 
Some of the animals of northeastern United States and southeastern Canada. 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 21 

the trees were burned by fires set by the Indians. Grass then sprang up 
in place of the trees, and the prairies became the grazing place for immense 
herds of bison (Fig. 26). The bison, however, like the other animals 
mentioned, have been mostly destroyed ; thousands upon thousands were 
slaughtered for their hides and tongues alone, and their bones left to 
whiten upon the plains. There are now no wild bison in the United States, 
except a few which are protected by the government in the Yellowstone 
National Park. In this Park, where hunting is prohibited, are numbers 
of deer and elk (Fig. 22). There are also black, cinnamon, and grizzly 
bears, which are so tame that they come down to the hotels at night to feed 
upon the garbage. 




Fig. 26. 

One of the immense herds of bison that formerly roamed over tlie treeless plains. 

A slow change has been in progress in this temperate section, 
which, when first discovered, was clothed in forests and luxuriant 
prairie grass, and inhabited by Indians and wild beasts. The white 
man has come into possession of the land and has cleared the forests 
and ploughed the prairies, so that, where trees stood and Indians 
hunted the bison and other game, there are now fertile farms and 
thriving cities. 

Our crops and domesticated animals well illustrate how man has 
learned to make use of nature for his needs. Every one of our cultivated 
plants was once a wild plant; and each of our domesticated animals has 
been tamed from the wild state. Most of these have come from Europe and 
Asia; but America has added some to the list. Among plants in common 
use, the Indian corn or maize, the tobacco, tomato, pumpkin, and potato, were 
unknown to the Old World until America was discovered. The same is 



22 



NORTH AMERICA 



true of tlie turkey ; aud perhaps, in a hundred years or so, the bison may 
be included among the domesticated animals, for on the cattle ranches of 
the West a few small herds are being carefully reared. 



Peoples 

Eskimos. — America was inhabited for thousands of years before 
it was discovered by white men. To the natives in the southern 
part Columbus gave the name Indians, supposing he had reached 
India. Those in the Far North, who subsist on meat, are called 
Eskimos, a word meaning flesh-eaters. 

To-day, in some places, the Eskimos live in very nearly the same 
condition as formerly, their climate being so severe that white men 




Fig. 27. 
Eskimo igloos in Baffin Land. 

have not settled among them nor interfered with theit customs. 
They still roam about in summer, living in skin tents, or tujjics, and 
in the winter erecting snow and ice huts, or igloos (Fig. 27). Their 
struggle is a hard one, for they not only have to battle against cold, 
but also to obtain their food amid great difficulties. In this they are 
aided by their dogs, doubtless domesticated wolves, which, like their 
masters, are able to subsist upon a meat diet and withstand the 
severe Arctic cold. Every Eskimo man has his team of dogs to draw 
his sledge over the frozen sea. 



PEOPLES 



23 



Indians. — Indians were originally scattered over most of the 
country south of the Arctic Circle. This is indicated by the places 
that bear Indian names, as Narragansett, Erie, Niagara, Huron, 
Ottawa, Illinois, Dakota, Pueblo, and Sioux City. Some of the 
tribes were true savages; others, not so savage, may be classed as 
barbarians. They raised "Indian corn" and tobacco, baked pottery, 
used tools and weapons made of stone, and lived in villages. 

In southwestern United States, Mexico, and Central America the 
aborigines were more civilized. Much of that region is arid ; but 
the Indians raised crops by irrigation, and built fortresses of stone 




Fig. 28. 

The pueblo of Taos in New Mexico. Notice tlie ladders leading to the roofs upon which are 

the house entrances. 



and sun-dried brick (Fig. 28). These were erected partly as homes 
for protection from surrounding savages, and partly as storehouses 
for grain. 

The most noted among these Indians were the Aztecs., who occu- 
pied the city of Mexico and some of the neighboring country. They 
had government and religion much better developed than the bar- 
barous and savage tribes. They mined gold and silver and manu- 
factured the metals into various articles ; they wove blankets, and 
ornamented their pottery and their buildings in an artistic manner. 
Living the quiet life of the farmer, the Aztecs preferred peace to 
war, and a settled home to the nomadic life of the hunter. 

While some tribes thus approached a state of civilization, the Indians, 
as a race, never became a powerful people. For this there are several 



24 



NOBTH AMEBIC A 



reasons. Instead of forming one great confederacy and living at peace 
with one another, they were divided into many tribes. Each tribe had a 
certain area over which it conld roam and hunt ; but if it encroached upon 
its neighbors, war followed. Under these circumstances it was difficult 
for one tribe to advance to a much higher state of civilization than the 
others. 

The level nature of the country rendered this difficulty all the greater. 
Had the surface of North America been very mountainous, some tribes 

might have been so protected by sur- 
rounding mountain walls as to dare to 
devote themselves to other work than 
war. Then they might gradually have 
collected wealth and developed impor- 
tant industries ; but the vast plains of 
the Mississippi Valley, and the exten- 
sive plains and low mountains of the 
East, allowed little protection. If any 
one tribe had built good homes on these 
plains, and collected treasures within 
them, the neighboring Indians would 
have felt that a special invitation had 
been extended to attack them. The 
Aztecs were continually In danger from 
this cause. However, the fact that they 
were jyartly protected by mountains and 
deserts, was one of the reasons why they 
were more civilized than the Indians of the northeast. 

Another serious obstacle to the advancement of the Indians was the 
fact that they possessed no domestic animals for use in agriculture. The 
horse, cow, ass, sheep, goat, and hog were unknown to them ; and, without 
_ these, farm work becomes the worst drudgery, because every product must 
be raised by hand. 

Again, although there was much game, the supply was never sufficient 
to support a dense population for a long period. Even the scattered Indian 
population was obliged to wander about in search of it. This prevented 
them from living quietly and finding time for improvement. All these 
facts worked against the advancement of the Indians ; but they proved of 
great advantage to the whites, making it far easier than it would other- 
wise have been for them to obtain possession of America. 




Fig. 29. 

Indian woman carrying her baby, or 
poj3oo.se. 



The Spaniards. — The astonishment of Europe was great when 
it was proved that there were vast territories on this side of the 
Atlantic. America was pictured as containing all sorts of treasures, 
and European nations vied with one another in fitting out expeditions 
to take possession of them. 



PEOPLES 25 

The Spaniards naturally led, for they were then one of the most 
powerful nations of Europe and had sent out Columbus as their repre- 
sentative. Leaving Palos in Spain on his first voyage, he was carried 
south westward by the winds to one of the West Indies, a point much 
farther south than Spain itself. Find on a globe the point on our 
coast that is about as far north as Madrid. 

The section reached by the Spaniards had a climate similar to that 
of their own country, and they easily made themselves at home there 
and soon came into possession of most of South America, Central 
America, Mexico, and southwestern United States. They had one 
advantage over the English and French who settled farther north : 
the portion of the continent that they discovered is so narrow that 
they easily crossed it, and thus enjoyed the privilege of exploring the 
Pacific coast also. It was because of this fact that the Spanish race 
settled the western coast as far north as San Francisco. 

After robbing the Aztecs of immense quantities of gold and silver, the 
Spanish converted the natives to Christianity, and introduced many Span- 
ish laws and customs. They cruelly mistreated the natives, killing many 
and enslaving others, and forcing them to work in the mines and fields. 
While the invaders were able to conquer the semi-civilized Aztecs and the 
barbarians of the islands, they made very little progress in subduing the 
more savage tribes. To this day, in fact, there are tribes of Indians in 
Mexico and Central America that have never been conquered. 

The French. — The French began their settlements in a very dif- 
ferent quarter, being first attracted to our coast by the excellent fish- 
ing on the Newfoundland banks. Soon the fur trade with the Indians 
proved profitable, and the French took possession of Nova Scotia and 
the region along the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes. 

The value of the fur trade, and a desire to convert the Indians 
to Christianity, led the French far into Wisconsin and to the head 
waters of the Mississippi River. Making their way southward to the 
mouth of that river, they took possession of the whole Mississippi 
Valley (Fig. 30), and called it Louisiana in honor of their great 
king, Louis XIV. In order to hold this vast territory, they estab- 
lished a chain of trading posts and forts from the Gulf of Mexico to 
the Gulf of St. Lawrence, One of the most important of these forts 
stood where Pittsburg now stands. 

What special advaiitage had the Trench for reaching so much of the 
interior of the continent ? Why should they not have proceeded westward 



26 



NORTH AMERICA 



to the Pacific ? Many places in the St. Lawrence and Mississippi valleys 
still preserve French names, as Lake Champlain, Marquette in Michigan, 
La Salle in Illinois, St. Louis, and New Orleans. 

The English. — The Spanish and French left only a narrow strip 
along the Atlantic coast for other nations. Among those who 
attempted settlements were the Dutch in New York and the Swedes 
in Delaware. But the English, settling at various points along the 
coast, soon obtained the lead. They captured New York City (then 
called New Amsterdam) from the Dutch, and extended their settle- 
ments along most of the coast from Florida to Nova Scotia. 

In several respects the portion that fell to the English seemed 
much less desirable than that held by the Spanish and French ; yet 
the English-speaking race has managed, not only to retain this, but 
to add to it most of the possessions of the other two. At the pres- 
ent time, the control of the entire continent, with the exception of 
Mexico, Central America, and a few small islands, is in the hands 
of either the United States or Great Britain. 



There are, of course, good reasons for this strange result. No doubt 
original differences between these three races is one cause ; but there are 
others also. In the case of the Spanish, the climate has been one factor ; 

for in a large part of their 
territory the weather is too 
warm to produce energetic 
people. In very cold coun- 
tries, as in the land of the 
Eskimos, so much labor is 
required in merely obtaining 
food and shelter, that little 
time and strength are left for 
general improvement. The 
struggle is too severe to allow 
progress. 

In warm countries, on the 
other hand, the same effect 
is produced, but in the opp- 
So little energy 
is required to find sufficient 
food that the people do not need to exert themselves, and hence do not. 
By taking a few steps, the Central American can find bananas and other 
nourishing food at almost any season of the year; why then should he 
work ? The people, therefore, lose the inclination to bestir themselves, 
Or, in other words, become too lazy to improve their condition. 




Map showing the claims of France, England, and Spain ^o^-i-p wa v 
upon the territory of central North America in 1760. •' 



PEOPLES 



27 




Anotlier reason why the Spaniards have not developed is found in 
their relation to the Indians. Although robbijig and enslaving them, they 
at the same time married them freely, so that, in time, half-breeds have 
come to make up more than half the population. These half-breeds 
are an ignorant class, far inferior to the Spaniards themselves, and 
so backward (Fig. 31) that they still follow many of the customs of 
the Aztecs. 

The French likewise intermarried with the Indians and adopted some 
of their customs, although not to so great an extent as the Spaniards. 
Their climate was, on the whole, more favorable than that of the Spanish ; 
for, though cold in the St. Lawrence 
Valley, the temperature was condu- 
cive to effort. But one of their 
greatest difficulties arose from the 
fact that the few scattered settlers 
were unable to protect all of the vast 
. territory to which they laid claim. 

As for the English, the temperate 
climate of their section is the best in 
the world for the development of 
energy. The warm summers allowed 
abundant harvests ; but the long, cold 
winters forced the settlers to exert 
themselves to store supplies for the 
cold season. Since it required only a reasonable amount of labor to ob- 
tain the necessities of life, time and energy were still left for improve- 
ment. 

In their treatment of the Indians, the English and French were less 
cruel than the Spaniards ; but unlike both French and Spanish, the Eng- 
lish would not intermarry with savages. Consequently, in the wars with 
the French, the English were not hampered by great numbers of half- 
civilized persons, and could act with more intelligence, speed, and force. 
Their relation to the Indians, however, placed them at a disadvantage in 
one respect; for, during the fights with the French, a majority of the 
Indians were enemies of the English. 

The fact that the English were hemmed in by forest-covered moun- 
tains on the west, and by the French and Spanish on the north and south, 
also proved an advantage; for on that account they were kept close 
together, and were easily able to combine their forces when wars arose. 

These are some of the reasons why the English-speaking race has won 
its way on the continent against both Spanish and French. Spain has 
steadily lost ground, having recently given up Cuba and Porto E,ico to the 
United States ; and France has had no claim upon the continent since 
1803. The Spanish race still occupies Mexico and Central America, while 
French is even now spoken by many people in jSTew Orleans, Quebec, and 
Montreal. 



Fig. 31. 

A primitive Mexican cart with wooden 
wlieels, such as may still be seen in that 
country. 



28 



NORTH AMEBIC A 



Westward Migration. — After the Revolutionary War, by which 
the Tliirteen Colonies gained their independence from Great Britain, 
an active westward" movement began. For a long time the Appala- 
chian Mountains had stemmed the tide of migration (Fig. 32). But 
at last numbers of pioneers found their way, along the river valleys, 
to the other side of these mountains. There they discovered fertile 
plains, free from rocks and woods, and ready for the plough; and 
their enthusiastic reports quickly drew hundreds of thousands after 
them. 

The westward advance pushed the frontier line on and on until 
the semi-arid plains of the West were reached. Then, in 1848, the 
discovery of gold in California produced a wave of excitement that 
carried hosts of adventurers across the Rockies to the Pacific coast. 
After this the western part of the United States was rapidly explored 
and settled. 

Slavery. — While the Indians of the East were being killed in 

war and driven westward, negroes 
were being brought from Africa. 
There are now fully eight million 
blacks in the United States, which is 
nearly one-ninth of our entire popu- 
lation, and thirty times the number 
of Indians. 

Slavery was first introduced into 
America by the Spaniards, who made 
slaves of the Indians, and afterward 
imported negroes from Africa. The 
first negro slaves in the British col- 
onies were brought to Virginia in 
1619, but their number increased 
very slowly until the close of that 
century. The demand for cheap 
labor was partly supplied by crimi- 
nals sent over from England, and 




Map to Show 

Distribution of Populatio] 

in 1790. 

SCALE OF MILES. 

\\ ■ ■ ■ . . 

\\\ 50 IQQ 200 300 



[ j No settlers oicept Indians who roamed atout. 

f-;-'^:'/] Scattered settlements, auoh a.S forts, pioneer houses and Binall villages. 
f^?v^ Fairly well settled. 

\ ^^y/i Most densely settled portion. More than 50 people. 
living on every square mile. 

Fig. 32. 

Map to show the settled part of the 
United States in 1790. Notice the 
cities named ; each of these had over 
5000 inhabitants. Which are now by other immigrants who gave their 
among the great cities of the country? gg^vices for a few years iu payment 

What about Chicago ? _ j l j 

for their passage across the sea. 
Many of these were men and women of good character, who became 
excellent citizens. 

Negro slaves were brought to all the colonies, but they soon 



PEOPLES 29 

proved a much more profitable investment in the South than in the 
North. In New England the farms were small, the products were 
numerous, and their cultivation required considerable skill. More- 
over, the climate was severe for natives of tropical Africa. On the 
other hand, the Southern climate was well suited to them ; and the 
simple routine work upon the great tobacco, cotton, sugar, and rice 
plantations was such as they could easily perform. According!}', 
the number of negroes increased in the South, while slavery gradually 
disappeared from the North. 

Immigrants to America. — Europe and Asia have poured forth 
a stream of immigrants into this country. Our increase in popula- 
tion, from a little over three millions at the close of the Revolu- 
tionary War to over seventy-six millions at present, has been largely 
due to this steady stream from abroad. Nearly every foreign nation 
is represented, and upon the streets of our larger cities may be heard 
the languages of most of the civilized peoples of the globe. 

The greater part of our immigrants has come from northern 
Europe, especially from the British Isles, Germany, and the Scandi- 
navian peninsula (see Appendix, p. xi) ; and great numbers of them 
have settled in the cities. More recently a flood of immigration 
from southern Europe has brought us less educated and less desirable 
people. At one time many Chinese threatened to come, and laws 
preventing their coming had to be passed. We have laws, also, 
excluding paupers, criminals, and laborers who are brought here by 
contract. To others the country is free. 

It has been our mission to welcome these strangers, and, in spite 
of their varying ideas, customs, and languages, to teach them the 
principles of a republican form of government, to educate theni, and 
welding them into an harmonious body, to make them good citizens 
and true Americans. It is not strange if some mistakes have been 
made in the process. It is a task that no other nation has ever per- 
formed on so grand a scale. Nevertheless, the fact that so few of 
the many foreigners who settle among us desire to return to their 
native lands is proof that they have not been disappointed in their 
expectations ; and it suggests reason for a well-founded pride in the 
government of the United States, and a hope for its future. 

Review Questions. — (1) Of what importance is climate? (2) Why are there 
no large trees in the cold North? (3) Describe the vegetation there. (4) Tell 
about the animals that live on the land thei-e ? (.5) Why are there more animals 
in the sea? (6) What kinds live there? (7) How do arid land plants protect 



80 NOBTH AMERICA 

themselves? (8) Tell what you can about the animals living in the arid lands. 
(9) Why should there be more life in the tropical zone? (10) Name some of 
the animals living there. (11) What can you say of the plants of the moist tem- 
perate zone? (12) Of the animals? (13) Of the bison? (14) What cultivated 
plants and domesticated animals has North America supplied ? 

(15) Describe the difficulties that the Eskimos encounter. (16) Give some 
examples of Indian names. (17) Describe the life of the different kinds of 
Indians. (18) What causes prevented the Indians from becoming more civilized? 
(19) Give a reason vphy the Aztecs were able to advance. (20) What advantage 
did their location in southern North America give the Spaniards ? (21) How did 
the Spaniards treat the Indians? (22) What attracted the French to America? 
Where did they settle ? (23) What other nations settled in the East ? (24) What 
has been the fate of the Spaniards and French in America? (25) Why have the 
English-speaking people come into possession of the greater part of the continent? 
(26) What interfered with the westward migration of the English ? (27) How 
was this migration finally brought about? (28) Tell about the beginnings of 
slavery in America. (29) Why was it more successful in the South than in the 
North? (30) Where do our immigrants come from? (31) What is our mission 
toward them ? 

Suggestions. — (1) Examine some century and cactus plants. (2) Find some 
furniture made of mahogany or other tropical wood. (3) Visit a greenhouse to 
see orchids. (4) Collect pictures of native plants and animals of North America. 
(5) Collect samples of different American woods. (6) What does the eagle sig- 
nify as our national emblem? On what coins is it found? (7) What have you 
read about the bison? About Indians? Write a story about each. (8) Do you 
know any of the negro melodies that were sung on the plantations? 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 



III. LATITUDE, LONGITUDE, AND STANDARD TIME 

Latitude and Longitude 

Need of a Means for locating Places. — In your study of geography 
you have doubtless noticed that it has frequently been necessary to 
refer to lines upon the earth, such as the Tropic of Cancer, the Equa- 
tor, the Arctic Circle, etc., in order to locate certain places and the 
boundaries of the zones. But these lines are far apart, and there are 
many places between them to which reference must often be made. 
For instance, suppose we wished to state on what part of the earth 
London is situated ; how could it be done ? Of course, by taking a 
long time, it would be possible to describe just where this city is ; 
but cannot some more convenient way be devised ? 

The difficulty is much the same as that which arises in a large 
city, where there are thousands of houses. 

No one person knows who lives in most _ji_ji_ji_j i ii_j| il 

of them, and if a stranger were looking _jCT[ZlD dlll^Dr 
for a friend, he might have much trouble -jqqq mill If 

in finding him. I]OCj-J>[I]|_J|Z1h[! 

The Streets of a City.— In this case ^^^^JQTJQ □"□□t^,^ 

the problem may be solved in a simple JiZIiZlQ^nQOl 

manner. A street runninsc east and -'i-JJ-r-' L— 1^ — l|-j|Zli 

west may be selected to divide the city -'yuV'^isi-^y '— ^^ 

into two parts (Fig. 33). Any place ^pjls^^nOnC 

north of this street is spoken of as being ®°^^^ 

on the north side, and south of it as ^^^- '^^^ 

being on the south side. The streets to ^^p of a part of a city, to iiius- 
.^ ,^ T , , , , p trate the need of naming 

the north and south are numbered from streets. 

this, as North 1st, North 2d, North 3d ; 

and South 1st, South 2d, South 3d, and so on. Then if a man says 

that he lives on North 4th Street, one knows immediately that he 

lives on the north side, and that his house is on the fourth street 

from this central one. 

But a city also extends a long distance east and west, and we 

need to know on what part of 4th street this house is to be found. 

31 



32 NORTH AMERICA 

To answer that question, another street running north and south, and 
crossing the east and west ones, may be selected to divide the city 
into east and west parts. The streets on the two sides are numbered 
from this one, as East 1st, East 2d, West 1st, West 2d, etc. (Fig. 33). 
Then if a man lives on the corner of North 4th and East 3d 
streets, one knows not only that his home is north of a certain line, 
but east of another line. If the blocks, or the space between any 
two streets, are always the same, it will also be easy to tell the dis- 
tance from each of the central streets to the house. 

This plan is not necessary in small towns and villages, because the 
people there know one another, and are able to direct strangers easily. 
Few, if any, cities follow exactly the scheme here given ; but many have a 
system of naming or numbering streets somewhat similar to this. 

If you live in a large city, perhaps you can tell just how your streets 
are named or numbered. 

Distance North and South of the Equator (^Latitude). — Places 
upon a globe are located in much the same manner. For example, 
the equator, which extends around the earth midway between the 
poles, corresponds to the dividing street running east and west. 
The distance between the equator and the poles, on either side, is 
divided into ninety parts (Fig. 34), corresponding, we might say, to 
the blocks in a city. These, however, are each about sixty-nine 
miles wide and are called degrees^ marked with the sign °. 

In making maps people think of a line, or a circle, extending 
around the earth sixty-nine miles north of the equator, and called a 
circle of latitude. Any point upon it is one degree (1°) north of thC' 
equator, or 1° North Latitude (abbreviated to N. Lat.). Similar 
lines are imagined 2°, 3°, and so on up to 90°, or to the north pole. 

Since all points on any one of these circles are the same distance 
from the equator, and from the other circles of latitude, the lines are 
parallel; and on that account they are called parallels of latitude. 
See a globe. 

The same plan is followed on the south side, places in that hemi- 
sphere being in South Latitude (S. Lat.). 

If one finds that a certain place is on the 8th, or the 50th, or some 
other parallel north of the equator, he knows how far it is north of 
the equator. San Francisco is close to the 38th parallel, Chicago close 
to the 42d, and St. Paul on the 45th (Figs. 104 and 131). Know- 
ing this, it is easy to see that Chicago is 4°, or about two hun- 
dred and seventy-six miles, farther north than San Francisco, while 



LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 



33 



'^°''t>> Pole 90'^. 




'^O'S. Lat. 
south Po'^^^^/^.^a,.. 

Fig. 34. 

The globe, showing the two hemispheres 
and some of the circles of latitude. 



St. Paul is 3°, or over two hundred miles farther north than 
Chicago. 

From this it is evident that we can easily find the latitude of a 
given place by the help of these 
parallels, for latitude is the distance 
north or south of the equator. 

Of course there are no marks iqwn 
the earth to show where these lines 
run, but they are of great use on 
maps, because they help us to locate 
places. Small maps and globes cannot 
well show the entire ninety parallels 
on each side of the equator, so that 
usually only every fifth or tenth one 
is drawn. Examine some maps (such 
as Figs. 42 and 104), to see which 
ones are given. Near what parallel 
do yon live ? 

East and West Distances on the 
Earth (^Longitude ^) . — But how about distance east and west ? It 
is about twenty-five thousand miles around the earth at the equator, 
and some means must be found for telling on the map how far places 
are from each other in these directions. 

Imaginary lines are used for this purpose, as before ; but this 
time they extend north and south from pole to pole (Fig. 35), and 
are called meridians, or lines of longitude. In the case of the city it 
makes littlp difference what north and south street is chosen from 
which to number the others. It is only necessary that a certain 
one be agreed upon. 

It is the same with these meridians. No one is especially im- 
portant, as the equator is, and consequently different nations have 
selected different lines to start from. In France the mericliaii 
extending through Paris is chosen, in England that through Green- 
wich near London, and in America the one passing through Wash- 
ington is sometimes used. But it is important that all people agree 
on some one, so that all maps may be made alike. On that account 
man}^ countries start their numbering with the meridian which passes- 
through Greenwich. The maps in this book follow that plan. 



1 The ancients thought that the world extended farther in an east and west than in 
a north and south direction. Therefore they called the east and west, or long direction, 
longitude ; the north and south direction, latitude. 

D 



34 



NORTH AMERICA 



In Greenwich, is a building, called an observatory, in which, there is a 
telescope for the study of the sun, moon, and stars. As these heavenly 

bodies are of great help in finding 
the latitude and longitude of places, 
Greenwich seemed to the English a 
fitting place from which to begin 
numbering their meridians. 




Commencing with this meridian 
as 0° longitude, people measure off 
degrees both east and west of it, 
and think of lines as extending 
north and south toward the poles, 
as they do of circles of latitude 
running parallel to the equator. 
Thus there is a meridian 1° west, 
another 2°, a third 3°, etc. Going 
eastward, they number 1°, 2°, 3° in 
the same way. 

Any place on the 3d meridian west of Greenwich is said to be in 
^° West Longitude (W. Long.); if on the 60th meridian, 60° W. Long. 
Any place on the 20th meridian east of Greenwich is in 20° East 
Longitude (E. Long.). New York 
is 74° W. Long., while San Fran- 
cisco is about 123° W. Longr. 



Fig. 35. 

The earth, cut in halves along the Green" 
wich meridian, showing some of the 
meridians. The meridian 20° is usually 
considered the dividing line between 
the eastern and western hemispheres. 



■ itude Weste 



The 180th meridian is a continua- 
tion, on the other side of the earth, 
of the Greenwich or zero meridian 
(Fig, 36), and the two together make 
a complete circle. Hence we may 
speak of circles of longitude as well as 
circles of latitude. Why must the 
meridian marked 180° E. Long, be the 
same as the one marked 180° W. 
Long ? Which meridian passes near 
New York ? Denver ? 

If a large map is made of a small 
part of the earth, the circles of lati- 
tude and longitude are too far apart 
to be of much use. Therefore, it is 
customary to divide each degree into 
sixty parts called minutes, just as each hour is divided into sixty parts. 
Each minute of latitude and longitude is divided into sixty parts called 




Fig. 36. 
view looking down on the north pole, 
to show how the meridians come to a 
point at the north pole. Notice that if 
the 0° meridian were continued it would 
unite with the ijaeridian 180°. 



LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 35 

seco7ids, as each, minute of time is divided into sixty seconds. The sign 
for a degree is ° ; for a minute ' ; for a second " . Thus 60 degrees, 40 
minutes, and 20 seconds north latitude is marked 60° 40' 20" N. Lat. 
Examine some map of a small section to find these signs. 

Knowing the latitude and longitude of any place, it can, by the 
aid of a map, be as easily located as a house in a great city. For 
instance, Denver is about 40° N. Lat. and 105° W. Long. It is 
therefore far to the north and west of New Orleans, which is about 
30° N. Lat. and 90° W. Long. 

Find the latitude and longitude of some of the large cities on the 
map (Fig. 44). Notice also that only every fifth meridian is marked. 
Compare this with the map of ISlew England (Fig. 47). Since this map 
represents a smaller section, more meridians can be drawn upon it. 

The circles of latitude are parallel to the equator and to each other, 
as you can prove by measuring the distance between them on a globe. 
But the meridians cannot be parallel on a globe, since they start from the 
poles and spread farther and farther apart until the equator is reached. 
Examine some of the maps in this book to see that the meridians are not 
parallel, while the lines of latitude are. 

You can see how this is by taking the peeling from an orange (Fig. 37). 
The edges of each of the quarters spread far apart in the middle, or equa- 
tor, but come together at the 

ends, or poles, of the orange. 

A degree of longitude is a f 

little over sixty-nine miles at / 

the equator ; but it decreases J 

more and more as the poles are \ 

approached, until at the poles \ 

it is nothing, because all the V 

meridians meet there at one 

point. Examine Figure 36 or 

better still, a globe, to see that 

this must be true. „ 

Fig. 37. 
How a degree of latitude 

hannens to be slio-htlv more than ^" ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^ ^'^'"* °* *^^® peeling removed to 
^ ^ . . ^ "^ show how the lines converge toward the poles, 

69 miles is easily understood. as the meridians converge on the glohe. 

The length of a circle extending 

around the earth through the poles is about 25,000 miles ; and this dis- 
tance is thought of as being divided into 360 equal parts or degrees, that 
being a number that is exactly divisible by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, and still 
other numbers. Divide 25,000 by 360. 

Keeping in mind the number 360, you can understand why the dis- 
tance from the equator to either pole is 90°, for that is one-fourth of the 
entire distance. How many miles in 90° ? 



36 



NOBTII AMERICA 



You can now find the width of the five zones (Fig. 244). Tlie tropi- 
cal zone is bounded on the north by the Tropic of Cancer and on the 
south by the Tropic of Capricorn, each of which is 23|-° from the equator. 
The Arctic and Antarctic circles are likewise 23^° from the poles. 
Give the width of each of the zones in degrees of latitude. In miles. 
What is the greatest width of the United States in degrees of latitude ? 
In miles ? How far is the southern extremity of Florida from the Tropic 
of Cancer ? How far is New Orleans from that tropic ? 



Standard Time 

If you were to travel from Nev\^ York to San Francisco, you 
would find on arriving that your watch was three hours too fast. 
The reason is that the rotation of the earth, from west to east, 
causes the sun's rays to fall upon the Atlantic coast more than 
three hours sooner than upon the Pacific, so that when it is 
noon in New York, it is about nine o'clock in the morning at San 
Francisco. 

Measuring from east to west, every place has a different time by 
the sun, and some years ago each city had its own sun or solar time. 
But when railways were built, connecting many places, these differ- 
ences became a source of constant annoyance to the traveller, for 
his watch showed the time of only one place. 




standard ti3ik in tiie ukited states. 
Fig. 38. 

To show the standard time belts of the United States, — the actual boundaries being 

irregular, as you see. 

In order to avoid this trouble our continent has been divided 
into belts, in each of which the railways, and most of the towns, 
have the same time. Since this time is the standard for all, these 



STANDARD TIME 37 

belts are called the Standard Time Belts. The one in the extreme 
east is called the Colonial Belt; that next west of it, which includes* 
New England, New York, and some of the other Eastern States, is 
called the Eastern Time Belt. What are of the others? (Eig. 38.) 

In travelling across the country from New York to San Erancisco, 
one starts with his watch set at the standard time for the Eastern 
Time Belt. After a while he comes to a place where the time 
changes one full hour ; then he has Central Time. Going still 
farther west to the Mountain Belt, the watch is again set back 
one full hour ; what is done when the Pacific Belt is reached ? 
In this way, only a few changes of the watch have to be made. 

Our study of longitude helps us to understand what determines 
the places for changing this time. When the sun is rising at a cer- 
tain point on a meridian, it is rising at every other point on that 
meridian. 1 

The earth makes one complete rotation every 24 hours, so that 
sunrise, noon, and sunset reach each of the 360 meridians in the 
course of the day of 2-1 hours. Dividing 360 by 24 gives 15 ; that 
is the number of meridians that the sunrise or sunset pass over in 
a single hour. Therefore, if in one place, as at Philadelphia, on the 
75th meridian, it is sunrise at six o'clock, it will be sunrise one hour 
later at all points just 15° west of this, or on the 90th meridian. 

This explains what has determined the boundary lines of the 
time belts. The time selected for the Eastern Belt is that oi the 
75th meridian ; for the Central Belt, that of the 90th meridian, 
which is just one hour later. What meridian is selected for the 
Mountain Belt? (Eig. 38.) Eor the Pacific Belt? Each of these 
meridians runs through the middle of the belt whose time it fixes, 
so that the eastern boundary of the Central Time Belt is half-way 
between the 75th and 90th meridians, that is West Longitude 82|-° ; 
and the western boundary is half-way between the 90th and 105th 
meridians, or 97|-° West Longitude. 

In reality the railways do not change their time exactly according to 
these boundaries, for oftentimes the meridians extend through very unim- 
portant points, or even cross the railways far out in open country. Instead 
of following the exact boundaries, they select well-known places, like 
Buffalo, Pittsburg, and Atlanta, at which cities the change is made from 

lit is understood, of course, that this does not apply to the frigid zone, where tlie 
sun does not rise at all during a part of the year, and where it does not set during 
another part of the year. 



38 NORTH AMERICA 

Eastern to Central time. Therefore, the boundaries which represent the 
places where the railways actually change their time are somewhat irregu- 
lar, and not always on the proper meridian (Fig. 38). 

You see that the object of these Time Belts is' to save annoyance, 
and that for most places the standard time is incorrect time. 

In order that our system may accord with that of other parts of 
the world, the time of the Greenwich meridian is taken as a basis. 
Thus the whole world may be divided into standard time belts, with 
a change of an hour at every fifteenth meridian. 

Questions. — (1) How may an east and west street be used in a city to locate 
houses ? (2) How may a north and south street be so used? (3) Make a plan of 
a city showing two central streets and others numbered from them. (4) What 
coi'responds to the central east and west street in locating places upon the globe? 

(5) Into how manj^ parts is the distance between the equator and each pole divided? 

(6) What is each of them called? (7) What is meant by saying that a place is in 
1° N. Lat. ? (8) How far apart are the circles of latitude? (9) Why are these 
circles called parallels? (10) What is S. Lat.? (11) What is a meridian? 
(12) Why is it necessary to have them upon maps? (13) Which meridian is 
most commonly chosen as zero? Why that one? (14) How high do the num- 
bers of the meridians run ? (Fig. 36.) (15) What is meant by saying that a 
place is in 3° E. Long.? In 90° W. Long.? (16) What is meant by circles of 
longitude? (17) What subdivisions of a degree are there? Why are they 
necessary ? (18) Show that meridians are not parallel. (19) What is the length 
of a degree of longitude at the equator? (20) Show how a degree of latitude 
happens to be about 69 miles. (21) Explain why the time is continually changing 
as one goes west. As he goes east. (22) How has this caused annoyance in 
travelling? (23) What remedy has been found? (24) What are the names of 
the Standard Time Belts in the United States ? (25) What is the difference in time 
between the belts? (26) Which meridians are used to fix the boundaries? Why 
these? (27) Show the boundaries on the map (Fig. 38). (28) Why is standard 
time really incorrect for most places? 

Suggestions. — (1) Find how the streets of Washington have been numbered 
and lettered. (2) What is the latitude and longitude of Boston? Of Washing- 
ton? Of Chicago? Of your nearest large city ? (3) Find some cities that are on 
or near the 42d parallel of latitude. (4) What place is in 25° N. Lat. and 81° W. 
Long. ? Near 40° N. Lat. and 75° W. Long. ? (5) Make a drawing showing sev- 
eral of the meridians. (6) Find places that have nearly the same latitude as your 
home. (7) Where and how much would you change your watch in travelling 
from San Francisco to Chicago? (8) What is the difference in time between 
Baltimore and Denver? (9) Examine some railway time-tables to see how they 
indicate the changes in time. (10) What is the difference where you live between 
Standard Time and solar time ? (11) Show on a globe or map where a ship 
would be in the Atlantic when in zero latitude and longitude. 



IV. UNITED STATES 



The continent of North America is under the control of diiTerent 
nations. The Dominion of Canada is a British colony, as are New- 
foundland, Labrador, and some of the islands south of the United 
States. Name them. Greenland and Iceland are Danish colonies; 
but the countries of Central America, Mexico, and the United States 
are independent nations. The United States also includes Alaska, 




NORTH AMERICA 
Density of Population 

I 'J Leas than 1 -per Square 

ES 1-25 " 

^ 25-125 

^!??a 125-5U0 " " 

Cjttea with over 200,000 Inhabitanti 



Fig. 39. 

the island of Porto Rico, the Philippines, and some other islands of 
the Pacific. In addition to this, Cuba is under our protection. 
What is the name of the group of islands to which Cuba and Porto 
Rico belong ? 

Our country is so large, and so different in the various parts, 
that in order to study it in detail we must divide it into sections. 

39 



40 NOBTH AMERICA 

The state boundaries might serve as a means of thus dividing the 
country ; but there are far too many of them. How man}^ states 
are there ? Draw a sketch map of the country, and place upon it the 
boundaries and names of all the states. 

In studying the states it is convenient to group them into five 
sections, of which the first is the New England group. As you 
study each of these sections, a very important point to notice is the 
scale upon which the map is drawn. For example, in Figure 49 
observe that a line slightly less than two inches long represents a 
distance of 100 miles. According to that scale, how long is the state 
of Connecticut ? According to the scale in Figure 68, what is the 
distance from New York to Buffalo ? Compare the latter distance 
with that from New York to Boston. It is thus always important 
to note the scale of any map that you use, whether it be one in this 
book, a wall map, or a map on an atlas. 




Fig. 42. 

Map Questions. — This map and the relief map (Fig. 10) show the great Western 
highlands, the lower highland region of the East, and the great trough between. 
What are the names of the large rivers that drain the different sections ? In which 
direction does each flow, and into what waters does each empty? In what part are 
most of the lakes found? Why? Name and locate each of the large peninsulas, 
islands, bays, gulfs, and seas. Draw an outline map of the continent. Upon it locate 
the large cities. 




Fig 3y. 



M TEL ^/V 



Modeled by Edwin E.Howell, i /' 



U«^ 




Fig. 46. 

Relief map of New England. Describe the relief: (a) the location of the moun- 
tains, (6) the lowlands, (c) the lakes, {d) the drainage, (e) the nature of 
the coast line. 



/! S-' <i I 




Fig. 48. 

Boston and vicinity. Also small maps of Providence, Portland, and Worcester. 
Notice the steamship and railway lines converging at Boston. Also the number 
of cities near Boston. 



V. NEW ENGLAND 



Physiography and Climate. — Many facts in regard to New Eng- 
land are already familiar from what has been said in Section I. 
The sinking of the coast has made the shore line extremely irregular, 
thus forming many fine harbors. The great glacier from the north 
has left its traces everywhere. By damming the streams and turn- 
ing them from their courses, it has caused many lakes (Fig. 12), 
falls, and rapids. The rocky surface of the country, with bare 
ledges and boulder-strewn soil, and, indeed, the very soil itself, have 
also been caused by the glacier. For many years the edge of the 
ice sheet extended along the southern margin of New England ; and 
the moraine hills and sandy plains that it piled up now cover much 
of Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket Island, and Long Island. 

While low near the coast, the land rises rapidly toward the 
north and west, 
and soon becomes 
a plateau crossed 
by river vallej^s 
whose bottoms 
are several hun- 
dred feet below 
the plateau top. 
The upland near 
the coast has been 
so cut by many 
valleys that the 
surface is studded 
with low hills. 

But in the west, the higher upland, known as the Berkshire Hills, 
is quite mountainous. 

Other mountains, in some cases where the rocks are hard, rise 
above the plateau. Some of these, like Mt. Monadnock in southern 
New Hampshire (Fig. 49), rise singly ; others, like the White 
Mountains of New Hampshire (Fig. 50), are in groups ; and still 

41 




Fig. 4'.). 

A view across the upland of New England, with Mt. Monadnock 
rising in the background . Describe this view. 



42 



NORTH AMERICA 




Fig. 50. 

The forest-covered slopes of a portion of the White Mountains 
of New Hampshire. 



others, such as the Green Mountains of Vermont and the continua- 
tion of the White Mountains across northerii Maine, form irregular 
ranges. Many of the mountain peaks reach from three thousand 
to four thousand feet above sea-level ; but Mt. Washington in New 
Hampshire is more than a mile in height, and Mt. Katahdin in 

Maine (Fig. 58, 
p. 56) rises to a 
height of nearly 
a mile. 

New England 
is so far north 
that its climate is 
cold in the north- 
ern part and the 
snows are heavy. 
This coldness is 
increased by a 
cold current from 
the Arctic Ocean, 
known as the Lab- 
rador current, which makes the east winds cool in summer, and 
damp and chilly in winter. On the other hand, since a current of 
warm water from the Gulf of Mexico, called the Gulf Stream (Fig. 
264, p. 234), approaches to within a hundred miles of the coast of 
southern New England, that southern section has warm south winds 
and little snow in winter. 

The Forests 

Cutting the Timber. — In the days of the early settlers there was 
so much forest in New England that lumber was one of the first 
products sent back to England. Now, where the soil is fertile, 
most of the woods have been cleared away ; but large sections in 
northern Maine, New Hampshire (Fig. 50), and Vermont, as well 
as parts of the three southern states, are still covered with timber. 
Standing on the summit of Mt. Katahdin (Fig. 58), for instance, 
one sees only a vast wilderness of trees in all directions. The 
nearest cultivated land is twenty-five miles to the east ; but the 
forests stretch much farther away to the north and west. 

Winter is the busy season in this wilderness, for at that time men 
go into the forests to cut the timber. Lumbering in Maine is an 



NEW ENGLAND 43 

interesting occupation, but it involves so many hardships that a 
lumberman is said to become an old man after a few years of 
service. 

It is often necessary to work when the temperature is far below zero. 
The swamps, which are numerous, and in summer almost impassable, are 
then frozen. At that season, also, the snows have levelled over the 
boulders and fallen trees so that heavy sleds, loaded with logs, may be 
drawn through the woods. 

Usually fifty men or more are necessary to a logging camp. With 
axes in hand, they go through the woods, cutting all the trees that are 
large and sound enough for good lumber. These are cut down, the limbs 
chopped off, and the logs dragged by horses to the banks of the nearest 
stream. The men go forth early in the morning and work until late in 
the evening, eating and sleeping in log cabins. Their beds are broad 
shelves of rough boards covered with boughs from the spruce and balsam 
trees, and the camp is often so small that they must lie side by side 
with scarcely room to turn. 

Floating the Logs to the Mills. — When the snow melts in the 
spring, the cutting is over and another busy season begins. The 
logs that are ready are whirled away by the stream current, now 
swollen by the melting snows ; but frequently even this flood of 
water is not sufficient to carry them. To provide against that 
difficulty, dams are placed across the streams, or at the outlet of 
lakes, to store water for use when needed. Immense numbers of 
logs are floated, or " driven," down stream, forming what the lumber- 
men call a "log drive." 

The work of driving the logs down stream is a very exciting one. 
Kocks and shoals often check them in their course; and, as soon as one 
gets caught, others are held back by it, so that, if the jam is not speedily 
removed, the entire stream may soon become blocked, and all the logs 
above be prevented from floating down. Such a condition is called a log 
jam, and it is the business of the men to prevent it by keeping the logs 
moving along in the river, and by freeing any that may become lodged. 
To do this, they must often wade into the icy water and ride upon the 
logs. It is common to see a man glide along on a single log, clinging 
to it by means of the sharp spikes in his boots, balancing himself with a 
long pole, and jumping from log to log, as a squirrel springs from tree to 
tree. The men are often wet from head to foot, and sometimes one is 
thrown into the water and drowned. . 

Sawmills and Paper-mills. — Some of the logs are stopped near 
waterfalls far up stream and there sawed into boards, laths, shingles, 
etc. ; but most of them are carried as far as the current will take 



44 



NORTH AMERICA 



them, even down to the river mouths. These places are natural 
sites for large towns and cities, because there the logs must be 
changed to lumber and various articles, Avhich requires much work 
and many men. 

Where the current of the Penobscot will carry the logs no far- 
ther, that is, where the ocean tide checks the river current, the large 
city of Bangor has grown up, since ocean vessels may come to 
this place to carry off the lumber. The drives of the Kenne- 
bec and Androscoggin are 
stopped at the sawmills in 
several cities along those 
rivers, such as Waterville, 
and Augusta, the capital ; 
but some are carried down as 
far as Bath, which is noted 
for its ship building. On the 
wharves of Portland, the 
largest city in Maine, are 
quantities of boards ready to 
be shipped away to be made 
into boxes, barrels, doors, and 
hundreds of other articles. 

Another important use of 
forest trees is to make paper, 
for much of the paper com- 
monly seen — as newspaper 
and wrapping paper — ■ is now 
made of wood. Short logs 
(two-foot lengths) after having the bark removed are placed in a 
steel enclosure and forced against an enormous grindstone. The 
pulp thus ground off is carried away by water, run through a sieve, 
deposited on a wide belt, and compressed into thin sheets between 
rollers. When dry it is paper. One does not often think when 
reading the news, or wrapping a package, that the paper in his 
hands may once have been part of a live tree in the forest, perhaps 
in the woods of Maine. 

Paper-mills, some using rags as well as wood pulp, are found at 
Waterville, Gardiner, Westbrook, Rumford Falls, Milli- 
nockett and other places in Maine. However, Holyoke, the greatest 
paper-making city in New England, is situated in the midst of busy 




Fig. 51. 
Lumbermen in the Maine woods. 



NEW ENGLAND 45 

cities in Massachusetts. There the pulp is generally made of rags, 
which produce a finer grade of paper. The neighboring cities assure 
a large supply of the necessary rags. 

Among the trees in the forests of northern New England is one kind 
called the sugar ma])le. It is very common in Vermont, although it grows 
in many other states also, as in New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. Its 
sap, unlike that of most trees, is sweet ; and if one bores a hole through 
the bark in early spring, when this liquid is moving through the trees 
most rapidly, it will ooze forth. This is then boiled to drive off some of 
the water, thus giving maple syrup or maple sugar. 

The Rocks 

There are three kinds of stone that are especially valuable in 
New England, namely, granite, marble, and slate, each of which is 
quarried in large quantities. 



' 


J^<^^wHI 




■ 


^%S: 




"'-"^iHHI 




^^^KKl?^-.y 


* 


, . 


, .r.r&i mSMK^ 




IH^^^.^ 


i 



Fig. 55. 
A granite quarry near Gloucester, Mass. 

Granite. — Many of the hills and even mountains, such as Mts. 
Washington and Katahdin, are almost solely granite ; but this is 
not often quarried, because it is too difficult to draw the heavy 
stone from the mountains to places where it is needed. The quarries 
have generally been located close to cities, or near the sea where 
the stone may be cheaply sent away by ship. One of the oldest 
quarries in the country is at Quincy, near Boston (Fig. 48), and 
buildings made of Quincy granite over two hundreds years ago 
may still be seen in Boston. Other quarries are found in and near 
Gloucester, Mass., Barre, Vt., Concord, N. H., and along the 
coast of Maine. 



46 NORTH AMERICA 

Beds of stone have cracks, called Joni^s, extending through them. These 
aid greatly in quarrying; for, in splitting out large blocks, the quarrymen 
need only to drill holes, and then, with gunpowder, blast or break the 
granite from one joint to the next. Smaller pieces are obtained by drilling 
holes into the large blocks and breaking them apart by driving in wedges. 

Much of the granite is used for paving-stones in the city streets, 
where heavy wagons are constantly passing. For that purpose large 
blocks are split into halves, these into smaller halves, and so on until 
the proper size is reached. Other large blocks are loaded into boats 
at the wharf and carried to Boston, New York, or even as far as New 
Orleans, where they are used as curbstones, blocks for buildings, and 
for other purposes. Several of the government buildings at Wash- 
ington are made of New England granite. 

One of the principal uses of granite is for monuments, columns, 
and other ornamental work. The stone is well suited for this pur- 
pose because of its beautiful color, which varies in different quarries, 
being gray, almost white, bluish, or distinctly red ; and most of 
it will take a high polish. 

Marble. — This stone is so much softer than granite that it may 
be sawed without being blasted. The most noted marble quarries in 
the United States are near Rutland, Vt., where much of the stone 
■is white, though some of it is streaked with blue. In other places, 
as in Tennessee, the colors are different and often very beautiful. 

Marble is too soft for paving-stones, but is much used for build- 
ings, statues, and monuments, the Rutland marble being one of the 
most common headstones in the cemeteries of the East. Like gran- 
ite, it may be given a high polish. Some of the most highly prized 
marble, mostly obtained from foreign countries, is so banded and 
variegated that, when polished, it makes a beautiful ornamental stone 
for interiors of cathedrals and public buildings. 

White marble has been used for many centuries for making fine statues ; 
in fact, long before the time of Christ, the Greeks built the marble Parthe- 
non upon the Acropolis of Athens, and cut marble statues, such as that of 
the Venus of Milo, which have become famous on account of their mar- 
vellous beauty. 

Slate. — Slate rock is quarried in several parts of New England, as in 
eastern Maine and western Massachusetts and Vermont. It is also obtained 
in Pennsylvania. The value of slate is due largely to the fact that it splits, 
or cleaves, so easily that it is readily broken into thin slabs with a smooth 
surface. In this way it is made into roofing slate and school slates ; from 
it also are made slate pencils, slabs for wash-basins, etc. 



new england 47 

Fishing 

Still another raw product of New England is fish. When the 
country was first settled, great numbers of various kinds, especially 
mackerel, halibut, and cod, were found close to the shore. Such 
names as Cape Cod, Halibut Point, and Bass Rock, given to places 
on the coast, indicate this. Find the first of these. Province- 
town, on Cape Cod, is still engaged in the fishing industry. 

Fish supplied the first settlers with one of their chief foods, and 
the fishing industry soon became of importance. You will remem- 
ber (p. 25) that it was the fishing which first attracted the French 
to the American coast ; and they still retain the right to fish along 
the Newfoundland shore. 

Near the coast, fish are now much less abundant ; but since they 
are still found farther from the shore, hundreds of vessels and thou- 




FiG. 53. 

A view in Gloucester harbor, showing tlie fishing schooners, the wharves where the fish are 
landed, and the buildings in which they are stored. 

sands of men are solely engaged in catching them. Gloucestek, 
which is a centre for that industry, is the greatest fishing port in the 
United States (Fig. 53) ; but Boston and Portland also have an 
important fish trade. 

Mackerel. — Mackerel are obtained in spring and summer. They 
swim together, and in such numbers — in schools, as fishermen say — 
that they make a great commotion in the water. The fishermen, who 
are cruising about in search of the fish, sail in swift, two-masted ves- 
sels, called schooners. When they sight a " school," they spring into 
their great seine boats, drop a large seine, or net, into the water, and 
endeavor to draw it around the "school." Then the seine is drawn 
in, forming a pocket and entrapping the fish. In this pocket enough 



48 NORTH AMERICA 

fish are sometimes obtained to fill hundreds of barrels. Some are 
siold fresh, others are salted and sold as salt mackerel. 

Halibut and Codfish. — The method of fishing described above is 
similar to that which the Disciples of Christ used in the Sea of Galilee. 
But fishing for halibut and cod is very different. This is carried on 
in winter as well as summer, and the vessels go from Gloucester even 
as far as Greenland and Iceland, although most of them fish on the 
Fishing Banks off the New England and Newfoundland coasts. 

Halibut are very large, often weighing more than a man ; and 
they are often caught upon single lines. Codfish may be captured 
in the same manner, though a trawl (Fig. 54) is more commonly used 
for cod than for halibut. The trawl consists of a number of hooks 




Fig. 54. 
Cod fishing by means of a ti'awl. Tell what you see in this picture. 

hanging from a single long line, all lowered into the water together 
and left there for hours. The fish bite at the bait on the suspended 
hooks, and in this way many are caught at one time. 

This kind of fishing is dangerous because the men must venture out in 
small, flat-bottomed boats, called dories, to take the fish off the trawls. 
While they are busy a storm may arise, or a heavy fog come up, and pre- 
vent their return to the vessel. They are then left in open boats far out 
upon the ocean. Every year dozens of Gloucester fishermen are lost in 
this manner. 

As in the case of mackerel, codfish are sold either fresh or salt. In 
order to salt, or cure them, they are split open and cleaned, soaked in 
barrels of brine, and then dried upon the wharf. Sometimes the bones 
are removed, the skin stripped off, and the flesh torn into shreds and 
packed into boxes as boneless cod. Either the salted or boneless cod may 
be seen in almost any grocery, and much of it comes from Gloucester. 



NEW ENGLAND 



49 



Other Ocean Foods. — Traps, or weirs (Fig. 55), are also set for fish. 
They are placed along the shore, and many kinds of fish, such as shad, 
salmon, and bass, swirii into them and are then unable to find their way 




Fig. 55. 
A fish weir at Bar Harbor, Maine. The large buildings are summer hotels. 

out. Lobster fishing is also carried on, especially on the coast of Maine. 
A lobster trap, made of wood and weighted with stone, is lowered to the 
hottom, where the lobster lives, crawling around among the rocks and sea- 
weed. A fish-head for bait is inside the trap, and the lobster crawls in to 
get it; but he is so stupid that he is rarely able to find his way out. 

Clams, found along many parts of the New England coast, live buried 
in the mud flats which are exposed to view at low tide. At such times 
boys and men dig these shell fish out, much as a farmer digs potatoes 
from a hill. 

Agriculture 

So much of New England is hilly or mountainons, and so strewn 
with boulders, that farming is not so extensive an industry as in 




^ 



Fig. 56. 

A view on a Massachusetts farm, showing some fine breeds of milch cows. 

many other parts of the country. By no means all the food that is 
needed can be raised in this section, much grain and meat having to 
be brought from the Mississippi Valley and elsewhere. And since 
the southern portion of New England is thickly dotted with cities, 



50 NORTH AMERICA 

where the people are engaged in other occupations, there is a ready 
market for whatever food the farmers can supply. 

Each farm usually has a small orchard and produces hay and grain 
which are fed to cattle and horses, or sold near by. All the farmers 
keep a few hens and sell the chickens and eggs, and some make a 
business of raising hens, turkeys, and ducks. One of the occupa- 
tions of the farmers is truck farming^ which means that various kinds 
of vegetables, as tomatoes, sweet corn, potatoes, cucumbers, cabbages, 
and celery, are carefully cultivated, and these, together with milk 
and eggs, are sent to the nearest town to be sold. The farmer often 
takes them himself and sells them from house to house, thus securing 
higher prices than if he sold them to a storekeeper. Why ? 

Strangers travelling through New England, upon seeing the hilly 
surface and rocky soil, are often puzzled to understand how, from 
such small farms, the owners can earn enough to build such large 
houses and barns, to furnish their homes so well, and to have so 
many books and pictures. But the excellent markets in the cities 
near at hand afford the explanation. 

Where the farms are so far away from the cities that it is impossible 
to drive to them, the profits are less ; but special arrangements are made 
for the marketing of milk. So much of this is needed in the large cities 
that special cars, carrying nothing but cans of milk, are run from far out 
in the country. Also a great deal of milk is made into butter and cheese, 
sometimes on the farm, but much more commonly at factories, or cream- 
eries, where the work is done by machinery. 

In some parts of New England, where the soil is very poor and no 
market is near, farming has been so unsuccessful that many farms have 
been abandoned, orchards are grown up with weeds, and houses and barns 
are tumbling down. This is especially true in the more hilly parts of 
New England. 

Manufacturing 

When the Puritans settled New England it was very expensive 
to bring from over the sea the articles that they needed. Neverthe- 
less, at first they imported not only furniture and tools, but even 
wood for the interior of houses and bricks for the walls, fireplaces, 
and chimneys. Even now, in some of the older New England build- 
ings, one sees doors and rafters that came from across the ocean 
many generations ago. 

Very soon, however, the settlers began to make for themselves 
such articles as shoes, cloth, and lumber. Thus manufacturing 



NEW ENGLAND 



51 




began early in this region, and the industry was greatly aided by 
the water power, caused by the glacier. It was also aided by the 
many lakes. These serve as reser- 
voirs from which, even during 
times of drought, a steady supply 
of water is secured for the falls 
and rapids. 

Many mills and factories sprang 
up near the coast, and later in the 
interior, and thus New England 
soon became the principal manu- 
facturing section of the whole 
country. Its many large cities 
owe their existence chiefly to this 
industry. Hundreds of articles 
are made, those composed of cot- 
ton, wool, leather, and metal being 
the most important. 

It may seem strange that this 
should be the case, since none of Fig. 57. 

these raw materials are extensively A waterfall that supplies power to some 

, 1-, , factories in one of the smaller manufac- 

produced m New England. But tm-ing towns of New England. 

the abundant waterfalls furnished 

such excellent power that it paid to bring the raw materials there 
to be manufactured. Therefore, chiefly on account of its water 
power, manufacturing developed in New England ; and the people 
learned the art so well that factories were later built, even where 
there was no water power. This is true in Boston, for instance, 
where steam power is used. Nowadays the location of a mill near 
an important railway, or near some other good shipping point, is a 
more important matter than its location near water power. 

Cotton Manufacturing. — There are about four hundred cotton 
mills in New England, making such articles as sheets, towels, stock- 
ings, underwear, thread, string, handkerchiefs, and gingham and 
calico dress goods. As many as twelve hundred persons are fre- 
quently employed in a single mill, perhaps three-quarters of whom 
are women, and they may consume from sixty thousand to seventy 
thousand pounds of cotton per day. Most of the cotton is brought 
from Texas and other Southern States ; but some of it comes from 
Egypt and other foreign countries. 



52 NOBTH AMEBIC A 

The cotton arrives in bales, weighing abont five hundred pounds each, 
and is made into cloth by machinery in the following manner : First the 
dirt, small sticks, etc., are removed. Then the cotton fibres of various 
lengths are combed out straight and well mixed with one another. After 
that they are pressed into thin, gauzelike sheets. These are gradually 
drawn and twi'sted into threads, and then wound upon spindles and taken 
to the looms for weaving. 

Cotton cloths are nothing more than such threads woven together, 
those that extend lengthwise of the piece being called the warp, and those 
across it, the tvoof. An ordinary piece of calico has a warp of perhaps 
twelve hundred threads, while a wide piece of cloth, such as a sheet for a 
bed, may contain as many as twenty-five hundred. Stripes are made by 
coloring the threads differently, and then, before the weaving begins, by 
carefully arranging them according to some design. 

Wool Manufacturing. — Wool is cut, or sheared, from sheep, and 
much of that which is manufactured into cloth in New England is 
obtained from Ohio and other states farther west. Large quantities 
are also imported from Australia. 

After being sheared from the sheep, the wool is washed and freed from 
burs, sticks, etc. Then it is untangled and combed out straight, after 
which it is twisted into yarn, much as cotton is twisted into thread. The 
yarn is woven into cloth for men's suits and overcoats, and also for cloaks, 
skirts, underwear, blankets, stockings, carpets, and dozens of other articles. 
Most, if not all, of the garments which you are wearing are either made 
of wool or cotton, or of the two mixed together. 

The cities extensively engaged in the manufacture of either cot- 
ton or woollen cloth, or both, are, in Maine, BiDDEFORD, Lewistoi^, 
Auburn, and Augusta, the capital ; in New Hampshire, Man- 
chester, Nashua, and Dover ; in Massachusetts, Lowell and 
Lawrence on the Merrimac River, Pittspield in western Massa- 
chusetts, and Fall River, New Bedford, and Taunton in the 
southern part ; in Rhode Island, Pawtucket, Woonsocket, and 
Providence (Fig. 48), which is the second city in size in New 
England. One of the largest cotton factories in the world is at 
Manchester, N.H. 

Leather Manufacturing. — Boot and shoe making is carried on in 
a number of cities, though the most important are Lynn, Haver- 
hill, and Brockton in Massachusetts. Leather is made from the 
hides of animals, such as cattle, sheep, goats, horses, and hogs. 
After the hair is removed, the hides are taken to taniieries, where 
they are soaked in a liquid to make them durable. 



NEW ENGLAND . 53 

Some of the tanneries are situated near forests, as in Michigan, where 
there are many hemlock trees, whose bark produces the tannic acid for 
tanning. Others are in the mountains of North Carolina, where a kind of 
oak grows from which tannic acid is made. Some of the tanneries of 
JSTew England are also near the forest ; but many, as those in and about 
Salem, are so far away that the bark, as well as the hides, must be brought 
a long distance to them. 

In other tanneries, chemicals are used in place of the tannic acid from 
hemlock or oak bark. In a single tannery near Boston, where sheep skins 
are tanned, from thirty thousand to forty thousand skins are used each week. 

After being thus prepared, the leather is brought to the shoe factories 
and cut up, one machine cutting out soles of a certain size, a second 
tops, a third tongues, etc. ; these parts are then sewed or nailed together, 
and the shoes are soon finished. As in the case of cotton and wool 
manufacturing, nearly all the work is done by machinery, each person 
caring for one or more machines and performing the same simple task 
day after day. 

Besides boots and shoes, leather is made into many other articles, 
as book bindings, harness, pocket-books, and bicycle saddles. Can 
you not name some others? 

Metal Manufacturing. — On account of the water power, New 
England early became engaged in manufacturing metals into various 
articles ; and, although steam now largely takes the place of water, 
these industries are still very extensive, especially in the three 
southern states. Since almost no coal and iron are produced in 
that section, tliese two materials must be shipped from other states. 
Therefore, large, heavy objects that require much metal and coal are 
not usually made. 

The lighter articles, as jewelry, clocks, needles, cutlery, tools, 
and firearms, that require a high degree of skill, are the chief articles 
manufactured from metal in New England. For instance, Worces- 
ter (Fig. 48), near Boston, is noted for its manufacture of wire 
and iron goods, besides envelopes, boots, and shoes ; Providence 
manufactures great quantities of jewelry ; New Haven is noted for 
hardware and firearms ; Bridgeport manufactures carriages, sewing 
machines, etc. ; Hartford, at the head of steamboat navigation on 
the Connecticut River, and Springfield, farther north, in Massa- 
chusetts, both produce firearms, cars, and bicycles. Fitchburg is 
also engaged in metal manufacturing. 

Near Boston, at Waltham, the American Watch Company has an 
immense factory where twenty -one hundred watches are made every day. 
About twenty-four hundred persons, more than half of whom are women. 



54 NORTH AMERICA 

are employed there, receiving $100,000 a month in wages. Great numbers 
of clocks and watches are made in Waterbury, and jewelry and cutlery 
at Meriden, Connecticut ; and in hundreds of smaller cities, towns, and 
villages in New England there are factories and mills of various sorts. 
Also some of the cities occupied in cotton and woollen manufacturing, 
such as Fall River, Lowell, and New Bedford, are engaged in the 
manufacture of iron and other metals. 

Largest Cities and Chief Shipping Routes 

The Large Cities. — All this manufacturing calls for an immense 
amount of cotton, wool, leather, metals, coal, and food ; and most of 
these products come from outside New England. It is not strange, 
therefore, that there are many cities on the coast. For instance, 
Portland (Fig. 48), the largest city in Maine, has an excellent 
harbor, and is the eastern terminus of the Grand Trunk Railway, 
Avhich runs through Canada, so that in winter, when the St. Law- 
rence River is frozen over, it is a shipping point for Canadian 
goods. New Haven, the largest city in Connecticut, Providence 
(Fig. 48), the largest in Rhode Island, and Boston, the greatest in 
New England, are all on the seacoast. 

The seacoast of New Hampshire is very small, and the largest city, 
Manchester, engaged in manufacturing, is inland near some falls in the 
Merrimac River ; but on the coast is the important city of Portsmouth. 
Vermont has no seacoast. Its largest city, Burlixgton^, engaged in lum- 
bering and manufacturing, is on Lake Champlain. 

Boston and Vicinity. — The most important of all the New Eng- 
land cities is Boston, which is fifth in size in the United States. It 
is itself a great manufacturing centre, being engaged in most of the 
industries already named, and in making clothing particularly. 
About it, are many large cities and towns in which also are large 
manufactories (Fig. 48). In addition, these cities serve as places of 
residence for many of the business men of Boston. 

Among these the largest are Cambridge and Somerville (Fig. 48), 
which are extensively engaged in meat packing, machine manufacturing, 
and printing. Other cities near Boston are represented on Figure 48. 
Among these are Chelsea and Malden, each of which is engaged in 
manufacturing rubber goods and other articles. Not far from Boston is 
Salem, which in the early days was even more important than Boston. 
Since its harbor is too shallow for the deep ships of the present time, this 
city has lost much of its commerce, which is now carried on in Boston. 
Notice in Figure 35 that Salem was one of the large cities in 1790. 



NEW ENGLAND 



55 



The great size of Boston is due largely to its excellent harbor 
(Fig. 48) and its central location. Many railway lines reach out 
from the city toward all parts of the country, while numerous steam- 
ship lines connect Boston with all important points along the coast, 
and with foreign countries (Fig. 48). 

The port of Boston is second in importance in the United States. 
Raw materials are sent there in great quantities for distribution 
among factories, and the finished goods are shipped all over the 
world. Also much grain and meat for food reach Boston from the 
West, and from there are distributed among the smaller cities, or 
shipped to foreign countries. These, in return, send such articles as 
coffee, tea, and bananas, which are needed in New England. 

Boston and vicinity have been important from the beginning of our 
history. There, at the commencement of the Revolutionary War, occurred 
the Boston Tea Party, Paul Revere's ride, and the Battle of Bunker 
Hill. The vicinity of Boston is also noted for its literary associations. 
Harvard College, the oldest in the United States, was founded in 1636 at 
Cambridge, three miles from Boston. Yale College, at New Haven, was 
established sixty-five years later, in 1701. Longfellow, Lowell, Holmes, 
and Agassiz were professors at Harvard ; and Hawthorne, Emerson, Tho- 
reau, and Whittier lived near by. 

Summer Resorts 

New England is so extensively engaged in manufacturing and other 
forms of business, that immense numbers of people dwell in cities, where, 
during most of the year, they are closely confined in noisy factories, or 
in ofiices and stores. To these, the wooded mountains, the silvery lakes 




Fig. oS. 
Katahdin Lake, Maine. Mt. Katahdin rises in the background. 



56 NORTH AMERICA 

(Fig. 12) and rivers, tlie green valleys, and the rocky seacoast offer such 
attractions that each summer tens of thousands run away from town for a 
week, or even for months, to enjoy their vacations at these places. 

They go to the green slopes of the beautiful Berkshire Hills and Green 
Mountains, or climb about among the rugged peaks of the White Moun- 
tains to enjoy the magnificent scenery (Fig. 50). Many plunge into the 
woods of Maine or northern New Hampshire, to hunt and fish, or to canoe 
upon the streams and lakes. Others settle down at farmhouses to enjoy 
the quiet of the country (Figs. 49 and 56). 

While great numbers visit the woods, mountains, and country, many 
go to the seashore to escape the heat and to bathe in the salt water, or to 
sail and row. So many go there, in fact, that almost the entire New Eng- 
land coast is dotted with summer cottages and hotels. Thousands visit 
Bar Harbor on Mt. Desert Island in Maine (Fig. 55), which is therefore 
a very busy place in summer. Nantucket Island and Martha's Vineyard 
are similar resorts farther south, while Newport, just west of them, on 
Narragansett Bay, is noted for its many magnificent summer homes. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

Review Questions. — (1) What effects have the glacier and the sinking of 
the coast had upon New England? (2) Describe the surface of the country and 
name the principal mountain ranges. (3) How do ocean currents influence its 
climate? (4) Describe lumbering in Maine. (5) To what use is lumber put? 
(6) What cities are noted for it ? (7) How are maple sugar and syrup made in 
Vermont ? (8) State how granite is quarried and what its uses are. (9) State 
the same about marble and slate. (10) Describe each of the kinds of fishing oji 
the New England coast. (11) Tell about the farming. (12) What led to the 
early development of manufacturing in New Phigiand? (13) What now deter- 
mines the site of a factory? (14) Describe cotton manufacturing. (15) Wool 
manufacturing. (16) On the map, locate the cities most extensively engaged in 
either or both of these. (17) Tell about the tanning of leather. (18) About the 
manufacture of boots and shoes. (19) Locate the cities most noted for these indus- 
tries. (20) What can you say about the manufacture of metals? (21) Name 
and locate the chief cities engaged in it. (22) Give several facts about Boston. 
(23) What large cities are near it? (24) Where and how do the people take their 
summer outing ? (25) Make a drawing of the New England States, including the 
chief rivers, cities, and the state boundaries. 

Review by States: Maine (Me.}. — (1) Draw the coast line of Maine. 
(2) What makes it so irregular ? (3) Find the principal rivers ? (4) What cities 
are situated on each? (.5) Should you expect much fishing along the coast? 
Why? (6) What reasons can you give why so many people resort to the Maine coast 
and woods in summer ? (7) Describe the lumbering in Maine. (8) What cities 
are engaged in producing lumber ? Why ? (9) What stones are quarried in the 
state? (10) Which is the largest city ? How does it compare in size with Boston 
and Providence ? (See Appendix, pp. v and vi.) (11) What other cities in 
Maine are mentioned in the text? Find them on the map. (12) Draw an outline 
map of Maine, locating the principal rivers and lakes, the capital, and the chief 
cities. Do the same for each of the other states as you study about it. 



NEW ENGLAND 57 

New Hampshire (N.H.). — (13) What large lakes are found in this state? 
What river? (14) Name the cities on it. (15) For what are they important? 
(16) Why are there not more cities in northern New Hampshire? (17) What 
industry should you expect there ? (18) Find Mt. Washington ; it is the highest 
peak in New England. (19) Where should you expect to find most farming? 
(20) How does the largest city in the state compare in size with Portland ? 

Vermont (Vt.). — (21) What large lake on the western boundary? Into what 
waters does it flow? (22) What river on the eastern boundary? Through what 
states does it pass? (23) What is the name of the mountains? (24) Lumbering 
is carried on, as in Maine ; into what waters must the lumber be floated ? (25) What 
other Vermont industries are mentioned in the text ? (26) There is also farming 
in the fertile valleys and manufacturing, as at Brattleboro. Find Brattleboro. 
(27) Compare the size of the largest city with that of Manchester, N.H. 

Massachusetts (Mass.). — (28) Measure the length and width of Massachusetts 
and compare it with Vermont and Maine. (29) Name the large cities near Boston. 
(See Fig. 50.) (30) Find Plymouth; for what is it noted? (31) Find the prin- 
cipal cities mentioned in the text and tell where each is located. (32) For what 
is each important? (33) What advantages do you see in the location of each? 
(34) Where is the mountainous portion of the state? (35) What effect should 
you expect the mountains to have upon agriculture? (36) State as clearly as 
you can the reasons why Boston has grown as it has. (37) Of what importance is 
Boston to the cities near by ? (38) Of what importance are they to Boston ? 

Rhode Island {R.I.). — (39) Measure this and compare its length and width 
with that of Massachusetts and Maine. It is the smallest state in the Union. 
(40) What is the name of the bay in this state ? What cities are situated on 
it? (41) What large city is in Rhode Island? (42) Compare its size with Boston 
and Portland. (43) Should you expect much lumbering in Rhode Island ? Whv? 
(44) Farming? Why? 

Connecticut (Conn, or Ct.). — (45) Where ai'e the mountains in this state? 
(46) Locate each of the cities mentioned in the text. (47) Tell for what each is 
important. (48) The fai'ms of Connecticut are better than those of Maine. Give 
reasons for this. (49) There is almost no lumbering in the state. Why? (50) Com- 
pare the size of New Haven with that of Boston and Portland. (See Appendix, 
pp. V and vi.) 

General. — (51) Name the industries of New England. Tell in which states 
they are carried on. Which industry do you consider to be the most important ? 
(52) Make a list of the ten largest cities (see Appendix, pp. iv-vii) in New Eng- 
land, the states they are in, and the business they are engaged in. 

Suggestions. — (1) Read Whittier's Snowbound. (2) Read about lumber- 
ing in Chase and Clow's Stories of Industry, Vol. I. (3) Visit a stone-yard, or 
a place where monuments are made, and collect some specimens from the chips in 
the yard. (4) Find blocks of granite and marble in buildings. (5) Make draw- 
ings of mackerel, cod, and halibut. You will find pictures of them in the dic- 
tionary. (6) Make a collection of cotton, wool, leather, and metals for the school. 
Also make a collection of articles manufactured from them. (7) If cotton is 
woi'th 7 J cents per pound, how much would the 70,000 pounds, that one mill uses 
in a day, be worth ? (8) W^hat are the average wages per hour of the hands in the 
Waltham Watch Factory? The working day there is ten hours long. How many 
, watches are made per minute? Per year? 

For References to Books and Articles, see Teacher's Book. 



VI. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



Physiography. — The Appalachian mountain ranges and phxteaus, 
with their stores of coal and iron, extend across these states from 
northeast to southwest. Just east of the mountains is a low, hilly 
plateau of hard rock, called the Piedmont ^ plateau. This low, hilly 
region is really a worn-down mountain land like Ne'w England ; in 
fact, it represents the very roots of those mountains which rose above 
the sea long before the Coal Period (p. 2). The land slopes seaward, 
and the streams flow in short courses in the same direction. 

Nearer the seacoast the country is a low plain of softer rocks, 
chiefly sands and clays, that were deposited on the sea bottom and 

then raised to form dry land. These 
plains, added to the country not many 
ages ago, are known as the coastal plains 
(Fig. 43). 

From New York to Alabama the line of 
division between the Piedmont plateau and 
the coastal plains is marked by rapids and 
low falls near where streams cross it, and it 
is, therefore, called the fall line (Fig. 59). 
There are rapids and falls at this place 
because the streams dig more rapidly into 
the soft layers of the coastal plains than into 
the harder rocks of the Piedmont plateau. 

Since the rapids and falls determine the 
place where boats passing up stream must 
stop, and also where there is water power, 
the earlier settlers located their villages on 
the fall line, as the Indians had done before 
Note (Fig. 59) how many large cities are on this line. Name them. 




Fig. 59. 

The fall line. Coastal plains 
dotted, Piedmont and other 
sections left white. Cities 
printed in heavy type are 
located along the fall line. 



them. 



Although at first the Appalachians acted as a serious barrier to 
westward migration (p. 28), at the beginning of the last century 
many emigrants pushed their way across the mountains. This migra- 



1 Piedmont means foot of mountain. 
68 



Map of the 

CANALS 

of 

NEW YORK. 




Fig. 60. 
The Erie Caual and other water routes of New York aud vicinity. 




Fig. G1. 
The locks in the Erie Canal at Lockport. 



3 ;? " "i-S S 




>^i|^ cog 

.jj O- 4-' r^ CC ^ _ ^ 

^ =« ba 2 P -" 

~, ''^' ;3 "S S o cs «i 
5 -r iS p: ^ ■" es 

» as t. :^ >--5 2 

S S"^ cuiS ^Ti • 

t S +^ — ~ .-^ OJ 

^ >. tD 0) CD 

m - ^ il> 
4J O H-^ bo 



OF THE 

M I D D u e: 

ATLANTIC STATES \ 

Modeled by -^ / 




Fig. 63. 
Where are the lakes found ? Why in that part ? 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



59 




Fig. 64. 

The Delaware Water Gap, 
where the Delaware cuts 
throDgh a mountain riclffe. 



tion was greatly aided by the fact that numerous rivers, such as the 
Mohawk, Delaware (Fig. 64), Susquehanna, Potomac, and James, 
flow across a part or the whole of the 
mountain system. They offered a com- 
paratively easy route across the mountains 
and therefore formed gateways to the fer- 
tile western plains beyond. Trace each of 
these rivers from its source to its mouth. 
On the western side of the Appalachians 
there is a plateau, sloping gently toward 
the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, called the 
Appalachian plateau. Near the mountains, 
in West Virginia and Pennsylvania, the 
plateau is so deeply cut by rivers, and 
therefore so rocky, that it would probably 

have attracted but few settlers had it not been for the rich coal beds 

enclosed in its strata. The 
mining of this coal has been 
greatly aided by the work of 
the rivers, which have in many 
cases cut down to the coal beds 
and brought the coal to light 
(Fig. T). 

Owing to the fact that the 
glacier did not spread over the 
southern part of this group of 
states (Fig. 9), few lakes and 
waterfalls are found there. But 
they abound in New York and 
northern New Jersey and Penn- 
sylvania, which the glacier did 
cover. Indeed, on the boun- 
dary of New York is the great- 
est waterfall in the world — 
the famous Niagara (Fig. 65^. 
-^ ,.^ Two of the Great Lakes are 

Fig. 65. 

. . „ ,,• IT 11 also partly in New York, 

A view of Niagara Falls. ^ -^ ' 

and a number of other large 
lakes are within its boundaries. Name some of them. See map, 
Figure 63. 




60 



NOBTH AMERICA 



111 the Middle States, as in New England, the sinking of the laud 
has produced numerous large bays and fine harbors, through which 
the tide often reaches far inland. In the Hudson River, for example, 
the tide extends above Albany, and in the several branches of the 
Chesapeake Bay it reaches nearly to the fall line. 

Most of the coast is low and sandy, with a gradual descent into the 
sea, so that bathing is excellent (Fig 66). Because of this fact and the 
cool sea breezes of summer, the coast is noted for its numerous summer 
resorts, especially near the large cities. 

Climate. — The northern part of New York reaches to the 45th 
parallel of latitude. How far is that from the equator ? From the 
north pole ? How much nearer the equator is the southern part of 
Virginia ? What effect will this have on the crops ? 




Fig. 66. 
A New Jersey beach in summer. 



While the climate of the northern portion of this group of states 
resembles that of New England, the climate of the southern portion 
is much warmer. Its greater warmth is due partly to the lower 
latitude, and partly to the ocean currents. The cold Labrador cur- 
rent does not extend south of Cape Cod ; but the Gulf Stream passes 
very near the Virginia coast (Fig. 264, p. 234). 

The climate is so mild in Virginia that sleighing and skating are 
rarely possible, while places near the entrance of Chesapeake Bay — as 
Old Point Comfokt and Newport News — are important winter resorts. 
Among the mountains, however, the climate is cooler; and even as far 
south as Virginia and North Carolina there are cool summer resorts on 
the mountain sides. 

Variable winds supply all of these states with thirty or forty 
inches of rain per year (Fig. 257), which is sufficient for crops and 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 61 

for dense forests. Because of its climate and products, the region 
is well fitted to support a dense population ; and next we shall 
see where the largest numbers of people are collected, and in what 
occupations they are engaged. 

Forests. — Many of the prominent industries in these states are the 
same as those of New England. For example, there are extensive forests 
both in the Adirondack and Appalachian mountains, and upon the Appa- 
lachian plateau near their western base. In the southern part, as in West 
Virginia, many hardwood trees are found ; but in the northern portion 
both the trees and the methods of lumbering resemble those in Maine. 
WiLLiAMSPORT, in Pennsylvania, is extensively engaged in the lumber 
business, as Bangor is in Maine. There are also many paper-mills sup- 
plied from the forests, as in Watektown" near the Adirondacks. 

Over most parts of this section the woods have been so wantonly 
destroyed that it is now necessary to protect those that are left. New 
York State has established large forest reservations, and founded a Col- 
lege of Forestry at Cornell University in Ithaca. Besides this, some 
large tracts of woodland, called game preserves, are carefully protected by 
certain citizens for the purpose of fishing and hunting at the proper 
season. State laws also protect the game. 

Fish and Oysters. — Fishing is a much less important industry 
than in New England. In the baj^s many shad are caught. This 
fish swims up the bays and rivers each spring in order to lay its 
eggs in fresh water, where the young remain until they are large 
enough to venture to the sea. 

Oysters are found from Cape Cod to the Rio Grande (Fig. 232, 
p. 202) ; but one of the best localities for them is Chesapeake Bay, 
where the waters are warm and quiet. From this region they are 
collected in great quantities. Some are shipped away fresh in the 
shell, but many are canned, like fruit. Baltimore and Norfolk 
are especially noted for this industry. 

When young, the oysters swim about freely ; but after reaching a 
certain age, they sink to the bottom, fasten themselves to some solid sub- 
stance, like a stone or an oyster shell, and never move from that spot. 
They depend for food upon what is brought to their mouths by the 
incoming and outflowing tides. Oysters prefer comparatively shallow 
water and can sometimes be picked up by hand from a boat ; but usually 
they must be dragged or dredged up with a long-handled rake. Small 
steamers and sailing boats are used for gathering them. So profitable is 
the industry that in many places there are private oyster beds, or " plan- 
tations," which are carefully protected. 



62 



NORTH AMERICA 



Agriculture 

There is more good farm land in these states than in New Eng- 
land, and therefore agriculture is a more important industr3^ The 
low, level, coastal plains, the gently undulating Piedmont plateau, 
and nearly all of New York State, excepting the Catskill and Adiron- 
dack mountains, are dotted with farms. Also in the valleys of the 
Allegheny plateau, and in the broad valleys between the Appalachian 
ridges, there is much farming land. In fact, there were farms in 
the latter valleys even before there were settlers in the prairie states 
farther west. The numerous large cities call for quantities of vege- 
tables and small fruit, and so there is much truck farming. 
Virginia raises many early vegetables for northern markets. 

Dairying. — Many farmers turn their attention chiefly to dairy- 
ing ; and, although butter and cheese are made in every state in the 

Union, this work is so 
important in New York 
that it is described at 
this point. 

The nmBber of cows 
in a dairy herd (Fig. 67) 
varies from a dozen to 
several score. In summer 
they are usually allowed 
to graze in pastures, but 
during the winter they 
are fed in large barns. 
Twice each day they are- 
milked, and the milk may 
be sent to a neighboring city to be sold by the quart, as in New England 
(p. 50), or it may be kept for butter. In the latter case it is placed 
in a rapidly revolving machine, called a separator, which separates the 
cream from the milk. The cream is then churned until butter is made. 
The skimmed milk, left after the cream is separated, and the buttermilk, 
left after the butter is made, are fed to hogs, and used in other ways. 

The best cheese is made from fresh milk ; but the process is too 
difficult to be described here. Utica, on the Mohawk River, is 
an important cheese market ; and scattered all over New York are 
small cheese and butter factories, or creameries. These are of great 
value to the surrounding farmers, since they furnish a ready market 
for the milk, some of which is brought to the creameries on trains. 




Fig. 67. 

A dairy herd in New York, on the way to the barn in the 
evening. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



63 



Tobacco. — Among the plants which the early explorers found in 
America was the tobacco. Much to the astonishment of the Euro- 
peans, the savages smoked the dried tobacco leaves in pipes. How- 
ever, the newcomers quickly learned to smoke also, and tobacco soon 
became one of the leading products shipped to Europe. Now its 
use extends throughout the world. So much tobacco is now con- 
sumed that, although produced in 
many countries, tens of thousands 
of men in the United States alone 
are employed in raising and pre- 
paring it for the market. 

The climate of most parts of New 
England and New York is too severe 
for this plant ; but large quantities 
are raised in the Connecticut Valley, 
and in the valleys of southern New 
York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio (Fig. 
216, p. 199). However, the state 
most noted for its production is Vir- 
ginia. In the vicinity of Lynch- 
BUEG and Danville, where much 
tobacco manufacturing is carried on, 
immense quantities are raised ; and 

Richmond and Petersburg, on the fall line (Fig. 59), are among 
the great tobacco markets of the world. Find these cities. 

The plant, which grows to a height of about three and a half feet, has 
thick leaves which are large and broad (Fig. 68), somewhat like those of 
the pie-plant or rhubarb. The leaves, which are the valuable part of the 
plant, are plucked in the fall, hung in a room to dry, and then made into 
some form for use. 

Fruits and Vegetables. — Both the fertile soil and the climate of 
these states are well suited to fruit raising. Nearly every farmer 
raises some fruit. But the sections near water have the best climate 
for it, because the water causes the air to be cooler in summer and 
warmer in winter. One of the most noted fruit belts is the Chautauqua 
grape belt on the southern shores of Lake Erie in western New York. 

Apples form an important fruit crop in New York, being grown 
in many parts of the state, but especially along the southern shores 
of Lake Ontario. So much fruit is cultivated in New York that the 
nursery business, or that of raising young fruit trees and bushes to 




Fig. 68. 
The tobacco plant. 



64 NORTH AMERICA 

sell, is greatly developed. One of the principal centres for this busi- 
ness is Rochester. 

On the coastal plain and Piedmont plateau of eastern New 
Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, grapes, berries, especially 
strawberries, apples, and other fruits flourish. iVside from fruit, 
such common vegetables as potatoes, tomatoes, beans, and sweet corn, 
are raised in all parts of these states. 

All of these fruits and vegetables are eaten fresh during the proper 
season, being used in such quantities that they are sent to the cities on 
fast trains, and even in special cars. They are prepared for the table in 
other ways also; for instance, the juice of grapes is made into wine, and 
that of apples into vinegar. 

The canning of fruits and vegetables for winter use has become an 
important industry in several cities, as in Baltimore and Wilmington. 
Many farmers are engaged almost entirely in raising fruits and vegetables 
for this purpose. Probably as many peaches, berries, tomatoes, etc., are 
put up in cans as are eaten in the fresh state. The tin cans in which they 
are preserved are to be seen in every grocery store. 

Many other crops, such as hay and grain, are raised in the Middle 
Atlantic States ; but a description of these will be given in connec- 
tion with the states further west, where such crops are produced on 
a much larger scale (pp. 105-111). 

This farming not only supplies /ooc? to the residents of the cities, 
but it also furnishes many of them with occupation. The marketmen 
and grocery men, for instance, receive a profit when they sell vege- 
tables, whether fresh or canned. The workmen in the flour-mills 
and canneries are also supplied with work by the farmers. Many 
other factories are established because of farming ; for example, the 
agricultural implement factory at AuBURN", New York (p. 70). 
Even much of the lumbering and mining is done because the farmers 
need furniture, ploughs, etc. Besides this, supplying goods needed 
by the farmers forms an important part of the business in many 
cities, like Lancaster, Pennsylvania, which is in the midst of a rich 
farming country. 

Mining 

The products from underground are far more important in these 
states than in New England. 

Salt. — One of these is salt, a mineral which every person must have. 
In the early days salt springs were discovered at the point where Syra- 
cuse stands, and that city owed its early growth to those springs. Little 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



65 



salt is now produced there ; but immense quantities of soda are made of 
brine obtained from the beds of salt near by. 

These beds of salt were deposited in the sea which covered this region 
before the Coal Period, and were then buried beneath layers of rock. They 
lie deep down in the earth in the region south of Syracuse and Rochester, 
and from them salt is obtained at a number of places. In fact. New York 
produces more salt than any other state. Kansas produces a large amount. 

When in the earth, salt is hard, somewhat like. coal, and must be 
obtained in one of two ways. In one case a small hole is bored to it and 
water allowed to run down and dissolve it ; then the brine is pumped up 
and the water is evaporated by heat until only the salt is left. In the 
other case, a deep hole, or shaft, large enough for men to pass up and 
down, is dug down to the salt ; then lumps of salt are broken off and 
hoisted to the surface. A salt mine is a beautiful sight with its clear, 
crystal-white walls and clean floor. 



Coal. — Although there is little water power south of the region 
formerly covered by the glacier, there is coal — an excellent substitute. 
The coal swamps that existed mil- 
lions of years ago (p. 3) stretched 
westward from the ancient Appala- 
chian Mountains beyond the Mis- 
sissippi River. In some places the 
coal has been entirely washed away. 
In others, it is sometimes found 
close to the surface and sometimes 
several hundred feet beneath it. 
Most of this is soft or bituminous 
coal, which is mined in enormous 
quantities in the neighborhood of 
Pittsburg and Allegheny. 

When the plains and plateaus 
that contain the coal beds were 
raised above the sea, they were 
nearly everywhere lifted without 
much folding. This was the case 
in western Pennsylvania, Ohio, In- 
diana, and Illinois; but mountains 
were formed in central Pennsylva- 
nia, and there the rocks, including the coal beds, were folded. Dur- 
ing the long ages that these mountains have been exposed to the 
weather, the mountain tops have been greatly lowered. Also rivers 




Fig. 09. 
A view in a coal mine in Pennsylvania. 



m 



NOBTH AMERICA 



have carved out deep valleys, and thus most of the coal in that sec- 
tion has been washed away and carried to the sea. In two or three 
places, however, as near Wilkes Barre and Scranton, beds of 
hard, or anthracite^ coal remain. It is to this coal that these cities 
owe their importance. In that mountain region the coal beds were 
so deeply folded that neither the weather nor the rivers have been 
able to remove them; and they remain, therefore, as remnants of 
much larger beds, preserved because of their protected position. 

Anthracite coal was first made in the same way as soft coal. Had it 
not been subjected to the pressure caused by the mountain folding, it 
would doubtless have formed a bituminous coal ; but the pressure has 
changed it by driving off the gases that form a part of all woody matter. 
These changes have made the coal harder and more difficult to burn ; but 
since it gives forth a more intense heat than bituminous coal and burns 
with less smoke, it is preferred for some purposes, such as heating and 
cooking. Throughout New England and many parts of the Middle 
Atlantic States, anthracite is the only coal used for these purposes. 

Most of the anthracite beds lie far below the surface/ and deep shafts 
have to be sunk to reach them. From the sides of such a shaft, tunnels 
(Fig. 69) are dug into the beds, and from these the coal is removed. Usu- 
ally there are several beds of coal, with thick layers of rock between them, 
and the shaft extends downward through them all, with tunnels reaching 

out from it at each 
level of the mineral 
(Fig. 70). In a 
large mine one may 
travel for days 
through miles and 
miles of dark tun- 
nels. 

The workmen 
break the coal with 
the aid of steam drills 
and picks, and they 
often furnish their 
own light by means 
of lamps fastened 
to their cax3S. After 
the coal is broken 
loose, it is placed in 
small cars, drawn to 
the shaft by mules, or by electricity, and then hoisted to the surface by 
steam. The mules are kept underground for months, being fed and 
allowed to sleep in stables cut out of solid coal. 




Fig. 70. 

Diagram to illustrate how coal is dug out of the beds in tunnels, 
and raised to the surface through shafts. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



67 



In the early days the coal mining was carried on by Americans, and 
many are still employed at it. Now, however, foreigners are extensively 
employed in various branches of the work, and in a coal mine one may. 
hear many different languages spoken. There are so many of these work- 
men needed that they form regular colonies, living near the mines in 
houses which they rent from the coal companies. 

Oil and Gas. — In the plateau along the northwestern border of 
the Appalachian Mountains, two fuels, oil and gas, are found. 
Petroleum, as the oil is generally called, means " rock oil," a name 
which suggests its origin. 

Ages ago, when these layers of rock were being deposited on the ocean 
floor, countless numbers of animals and plants, dying and dropping to the 
bottom, were imprisoned and deeply buried. These plant and animal 
fossils then slowly decayed, forming oil and gas. Later, the oil and gas 
were stored in the earth in the pores between the grains of sandstone and 
other rocks. Very nearly the same kind of oil is now manufactured from 
fish refuse, and nearly the same kind of gas rises from plants that are 
decaying in swampy places. 

As soon as an opening is made through the rock by boring into 
it, the gas, which is associated with petroleum, rushes forth, and is 
conducted away in pipes, often to distant places. Thousands of 
homes in Buffalo, Pittsburg, and other places are heated with 
natural gas ; and in many factories, too, the gas is used for fuel. 

Petroleum also flows out from the borings or oil wells; but fre- 
quently it must be pumped out. Near the oil wells cities have grown 
up, such as Beadfoed and Oil City in Pennsylvania, and Oleak 
in New York. After being 
taken from the earth, the 
petroleum is stored in large 
tanks and then refined 
(Fig. 71). In its natural 
state it is a thick, dark 
yellow or reddish yellow 
fluid ; but in the refinery 
it is changed so that the 
greater part of it becomes 
clear, colorless, kerosene 
oil. Benzine, naplitha, and gasoline are also made from it. The 
thick substances left after the refining, are used in making dyes of 
various kinds, machine oil, vaseline, and paraffin. 




Fig. 71. 
Oil tanks in an oil refinery. 



68 NOBTH AMERICA 

No region in the world furnislies so much oil as western Pennsylvania, 
West Virginia, and eastern Ohio. The only section of the world that ap- 
proaches it is in Russia near the Caspian Sea. The oil business, which is 
one of the great industries of the country, is in the hands of the Standard 
Oil Company, which has absorbed a large number of the small dealers. 
From the wells the oil is led to the refineries in pipes many miles long, and 
the company owns immense numbers of special tank cars for carrying the 
kerosene all over the country, and steamers for shipping it to foreign lands. 
Watch for one of the tank cars and describe it. 

Iron Ore. — Pennsylvania and West Virginia enjoy a great advan- 
tage in having within their own borders an abundance, not only of 
coal, but also of oil and gas for fuel. Iron ore is also found in Penn- 
sylvania, Virginia, and other states. Thus both the raw material and 
the fuel necessary for manufacturing it into useful articles are found 
almost side by side. Of course the cities of the neighboring states, such 
as New York and New Jersey, are also able to obtain these materials. 

This is very important, since iron is the most valuable metal for manu- 
facturing that exists. Like coal, this iron ore was prepared long ago, 
though in a very different manner, as follows. Small quantities of iron 
exist in many minerals and rocks, the red and yellow colors of many soils 
being due to it. As water slowly seeps through the rocks it dissolves the 
iron, much as it would dissolve salt or sugar if those substances were there. 
In some places, where the conditions have been favorable, the water has 
brought quantities of the iron to one place and there deposited it, forming 
beds, or veins of iron ore, and it is these that are now being mined. 

Sometimes the beds lie very deep, and again they are so near the surface 
that the iron ore is dug out of great open pits, as stone is taken from quar- 
ries. In asppearance, iron ore is sometimes a hard, black mineral, some- 
times a soft, loose, yellowish or reddish brown earth. It is not iron at all, 
any more than wheat is flour ; it is only the iron ore mineral out of which 
iron may be made by a great deal of work. 

Iron and Iron Goods. — It is easy to see that one of the principal 
industries of this section must be connected with iron. Two mate- 
rials, coke and limestone, are used with the iron ore to reduce it to the 
metal. The coke is made from bituminous coal, and the limestone is 
obtained in quarries. 

To obtain coke, coal is placed in stone or brick furnaces, called coTce 
ovens, built in such a manner that very little air can reach the coal, 
which is then set on fire. Many of the gases that form a part of coal 
are thus either burned up or driven out. One of these gases is the same 
as that which is used for street lights and for illuminating houses. So 
little air is let into the ovens that not all substances in the coal are burnt. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



69 




The part left is the very light, porous coke which can then be burned and 
made to furnish intense heat, if supplied with plenty of air. 

In reducing iron ore to iron, more coke is used than ore, so tlita 
it is an advantage to have the mines of coal and iron ore near 
each other. The coke, 
iron ore, and limestone 
are all placed together in 
a high, tower-like struct- 
ure called a blast foir- 
nace (Fig. 72), so named 
because ablast of air is 
forced through it to pro- 
duce a strong draft while 
the coke is burning. 

Such great heat melts 
the ore and limestone ; and 
the iron, being heaviest, 
sinks to the bottom of the 
fiery -hot liquid. The lime- 
stone, and those elements 
of the ore that are not iron, 
rise to the surface, forming slag — a worthless substance that is drawn off 
through an opening in the furnace and thrown away. Through a lower 

opening, the iron is run off 
into trenches made of sand 
on a sand floor. 

There is one main 
trench with numerous side 
branches, and each of these 
has still smaller branches 
connected with it, as in 
Figure 73. When the 
molten iron cools, the little 
bars of iron, called pig iron, 
are attached to a larger one. 
These rough bars, which 
may be easily lifted, are 
then broken off and shipped 
away to be made into thou- 
sands of different articles. 
Some iron goods, such as stoves and the iron paxts of your desk, are 
nothing more than this pig iron melted and cast, in moulds, into the shape 
that is desired. This is cast iron, which is so brittle that it easily breaks 



Fig. 72. 

A blast furnace. The large round tower on the left is 
the furnace ; the tall slender tower, the chimney ; the 
other, an elevator for hoisting the ore, coal, and lime- 
stone which are placed in the top of the furnace. 




Fig. 73. 

Molten iron running out of a blast furnace into 
trenches, where it cools to form pig iron. 



70 JSrOETII AMEBIC A 

under a heavy blow. Other materials, such as knife blades, boiler plates, 
rails for railways, and watch springs, are made of steel. This also is made 
of pig iron, though after it has been greatly hardened and strengthened by 
an expensive process. 

Wrought iron, a third kind, is used Avliere it is necessary for the 
metal to bend and yet be tough, as in iron wire. 

Almost every city in the Middle Atlantic States is engaged in 
iron work of some kind, some in making iron and steel out of ore, 
others in manufacturing iron and steel goods. For example, in New 
York State, Buffalo manufactures car wheels, machinery, and many 
other articles. It has nearly four thousand manufactories, many of 
them making iron goods ; and in New York City almost all kinds 
of iron goods are made. Iron and steel goods, bicycles, etc., are 
manufactured in Syracuse ; stoves are made in Albany and 
Troy ; and there are iron foundries in Binghamtojst, Elmira, 
and Schenectady. 

In Pennsylvania, Philadelphia manufactures steel ships, cars, 
and hundreds of other iron goods; Pittsburg and Allegheny 
(Fig. 125,) make steel and iron goods of nearly every kind; and 
ScRANTON, Reading, Harrisburg, Erie, Altoona, and a score 
of other places have furnaces, foundries, and machine shops for iron 
manufacturing. In New Jersey, Jersey City, Newark, Camden, 
and HoBOKEN manufacture iron goods; in Delaware, Wilmington 
is noted for its cars and steel ships; in Maryland, Baltimore, like 
Philadelphia and New York, has a great variety of iron manufactures. 
Wheeling in West Virginia, and Roanoke in Virginia, are also 
engaged in iron manufacturing. Almost any article of iron that 
you might name is made in these cities. 

The importance of even a single manufactory is proved by the follow- 
ing facts : In 1899, at D. M. Osborne Company's works, Auburj^, New 
York, where farming implements, such as mowers, rakes, reapers, and har- 
rows, are made, over 2700 men are employed, making one complete imple- 
ment every 40 seconds. Each year these men and their families consume 
about 9000 barrels of flour, 62,000 bushels of potatoes, 200,000 dozen eggs, 
1,400,000 quarts of milk, 375,000 pounds of butter, and 1,300,000 pounds 
of meat, besides much coffee, tea, and sugar. Since they also need to buy 
clothes, shoes, etc., this one factory, by furnishing the money for all these 
purchases, helps to support farmers, storekeepers, shoe manufactories, 
railways, and many other industries; but since it is the farmer who buys 
the implements, it is he who has caused the factory to be needed. One is 
really dependent upon the other. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



71 



Glass, Pottery, Bricks, etc. — Three other mineral products are 
especially worthy of note. Glass is manufactured at and near 
Pittsburg, Wheeling, and many other places, especially where 
natural gas furnishes cheap fuel. In the vicinity of the former city 
are sands which, when melted and mixed with other substances, 
make an excellent quality of glass. Pittsburg is the greatest centre 
for j)late glass in the country. 

In and near Trenton, New Jersey, there is a kind of clay which 
may be manufactured into pottery of a very high grade, and pottery 
making has become an important 
industry in that city. To make 
such earthenware the clay is shaped 
by skilful workmen into cups, sau- 
cers, vases, etc. (Fig. 74), and then 
baked until it is hard. 



So many bricks are used for build- 
ing, that brick yards are found in 
the neighborhood of nearly all cities. 
Bricks are made of clay, which is 
pressed into the brick shape when 
damp, then dried, and finally baked. 
In this process some of the grains 
melt, so that, when cooled again, they 
cling together like stone. The clays 
near Philadelphia, and the great 
clay beds of the Hudson valley above 
New York City, supply an abmidance 
of brick for these great cities. 




Fig. 74. 

A potter's wheel in the works of the 
Trenton Potteries Company. 



Many other kinds of manufacturing might be mentioned, as that 
of flour at Rochester, New York; silk at Paterson, New Jersey; 
shirts, collars, and cuffs at Troy; starch at Oswego; cotton goods 
at Utica; boots and shoes at Binghamton and Rochester; carpets 
at YoNKERS; and plush at Jamestown. There is some manufac- 
turing in nearly every town; and in the large cities so many differ- 
ent kinds flourish that a score of pages would be required even to 
enumerate them. 



Largest Cities and Chief Shipping Routes 

Location of New York City. — The greatest of all the cities of the 
United States is New York, which contains about three and a half 



72 



NOBTH AMERICA 



Uion inhamibitants, and is second only to London among the great 
cities of the world. There are several other large cities in its imme- 
diate vicinity, as Jersey City, Newark, Elizabeth, Paterson, 
and HoBOKEN (Fig. 81), all across the Hudson River in New Jersey, 
but, so far as their business relations are concerned, forming a part 
of New York City. Before its union with New York, the great city 
of Brooklyn, on Long Island, was fourth among the cities of the 
country. 

Such a vast collection of people in one section is due chiefly to 
the excellent harbor and the ease with which goods may be sent 
westward by water and by rail, making this the principal shipping 
point in America. More than half of all the foreign trade of the 
United States is carried on through this port. 

The tide reaches up the Hudson above Albany, and the Erie 
Canal extends from there westward to Buffalo (Fig. 61), on Lake 
Erie, a distance of 350 miles. From that point one is able to go by 
way of the lakes to Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, and Duluth. Thus 




Fig. 75. 
Brooklyn Bridge in New York City. 

by the aid of this canal, New York City is connected by water with 
a vast inland territory which is highly productive and thickly popu- 
lated. By sea New York is connected with different parts of the 
world, and steamships are constantly entering and leaving its harbor. 
Erie Canal. — This canal, whicli is over 350 miles long, follows 
the easiest route westward from the Eastern States, the route used 
by the Indians before the Avhite men came. Since the canal is only 
seventy feet wide and seven feet deep, all freight coming from the 
West in lake steamers, and intended for the canal, must be unloaded 
at Buffalo, and placed in canal boats. These clumsy-looking boats 
are made with broad, flat bottoms, in order that they may carry 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 73 

heavy loads without sinking deep into the water. They are drawn 
by horses or mules that walk along the tow path at the side. 

Before the Erie Canal was built Philadelphia was larger than 
New York, and Buffalo was only a small village (Fig. 76) ; but 
since the canal was completed, in 1825, both the latter cities have 
grown rapidly, while numerous others along the Hudson River and 
the canal have attained great importance (Fig. 60). They all have 
manufacturing industries and use the canal for obtaining such raw 
materials as coal and iron, and for shipping away the manufactured 
goods. Notice especially Lockpoet, situated where there is a very 
decided slope in the land, necessitating many locks (in which the 
boats are raised or lowered from one level to another) in the canal ; 
hence the name (Fig. 61). 




Fig. 76. 
Buffalo in 1828. 

Several other canals have been built in New York, as may be seen in 
Figure 60 ; point them out and explain their importance. The smaller 
lakes and the Hudson River are also made use of as a part of the canal 
system ; but upon these larger bodies of water a number of canal boats 
are firmly lashed together and taken in tow by a small steamer or tug 
boat. 

Railways of New York. — Canals furnish a very slow method of 
conveyance ; consequently, soon after the use of steam was dis- 
covered, men began to build railways. The New York Central 
Railway, one of the most important in the United States, extends 
from the very heart of New York City up the Hudson to Albany 
(Fig. 77), where it connects with Boston trains. From Albany 
westward to Buffalo the route is almost the same as that of the 
Erie Canal. 

Several other railways connect New York with the West, cross- 



74 



NORTH AMERICA 




Fig. 77. 
Map showing location of Buffalo, Rochester, and Albany. 

ing the Appalachians at various points, some passing through Buf- 
falo, which is a great railway centre, as well as an important lake 
port (Fig. 77). At Buffalo immense quantities of grain, flour, 
lumber, and iron from the West are transferred from lake vessels 
to canal boats or railways, while coal and manufactured goods are 
shipped from the East westward. 

The Niagara Falls (Fig. 65), about twenty miles away, supply Buffalo 
with a great abundance of electric power. All the street cars are run by 
it, and many factories besides. Electric cars, run by Niagara power, go 
from Buffalo to Lockport and to the city of JSTiagaka Falls. The 
latter place has become an important manufacturing city because of the 
power furnished by the immense Niagara cataract. 

Since the Hudson River is about a mile in width at its mouth, most of 
the railways reaching New York from the West and South cannot enter 
the city. They have their terminals just across the river at Hobokex or 
Jersey City in New Jersey. Because of this the latter city is one of the 
great railway centres of the country. From these points passengers and 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 



75 



freight are conveyed across the river in ferries (Fig. 78), whole trains often 
being taken upon one boat. 



1 ^ 

^^iiiif 1.1 i If B iHiH| 


-•WKi^iW? -*-T!^"«»a*«KaZ,C-B 



Fig. 78. 
A New York ferry. 



Since the numerous railways now carry much of the freight that 
used to be given to the canals, the latter have lost much of their 
importance, and there is even 
some talk of abandoning the 
Erie Canal. 

New York City. — New 
York City is not only the 
greatest shipping point in" 
North America, but, together 
with the neighboring cities, 
the greatest manufacturing 
centre as well. The place 
from which goods are most 
easily shipped in all direc- 
tions is, for that very reason, one of the best places for manufactur- 
ing. Nearly every manufactured article that human beings need is 
made in or near New York ; but one of the most extensive industries 
is the manufacture of clothing. Cotton and Avoollen goods are sent 
from the New England factories to New York to be made into such 
articles as dresses, men's suits, and underclothing, and then shipped 
away. Large buildings, in which hundreds of men and women are 
employed, are given up to this one work. 

Iron and coal are so near at hand that the manufacture of iron 
goods is another great industry. The refining of petroleum is a third, 
the oil being led in pipes from the oil fields of western Pennsyl- 
vania to great refineries in New Jersey, near the metropolis. The 
refining of sugar is another immense business in and near New York, 
as at Jersey City and Brooklyn ; and there are liundreds of other 
manufacturing industries. More books, magazines, and newspapers 
are published in New York than in any other city in the Union ; 
and so much wealth is collected there that the New York banks 
largely control the great business undertakings of all parts of the 
country. 

At the southern end of Manhattan Island, on which much of 
New York is built, there are about eight square miles of the city 
given up almost exclusively to the wholesale trade. For the sake 
of space many of the great office buildings are from eight to thirty- 



76 



NORTH AMERICA 




two stories in height. In this part of New York are collected such 
goods as are manufactured in the city or are brought to it from all 
parts of the world. Merchants in Denver, Louisville, St. Paul, Gal- 
veston, Indianapolis, and other 
cities, purchase these goods for 
their stores. In return the West- 
ern and Southern people send 
grain, meat, sugar, etc., to this 
great city. Thus we daily depend 
upon one another for our living, 
even though our homes are far 
apart. 

The contrast between life in New 
York City and .upon a farm (p. 105) 
is striking. On some of the streets 
scarcely anything but stores can be 
seen for ten or twelve miles, many of 
them being small, but some occupy- 
ing enormous buildings ai^id employ- 
ing many hundreds of clerks. 

Families whose homes are in the 
city do not usually occupy a whole house ; but many live in large build- 
ings, in which hundreds of other people also live. Such a structure, called 
an apartment building, is commonly 
from six to eight stories high, and is 
so arranged that one family occupies 
only a small part of one floor, or a flat. 
Other families live above and below, 
as Avell as on each side, being separated 
from them by only a few inches of 
brick or boards. Since land is so 
valuable, sometimes costing scores of 
dollars a square foot, there is com- 
monly neither front nor back yard. 
In the poorer sections of the city 
the people are even more densely 
crowded. Some of the children have 
never seen the country, and scarcely 
any birds, trees, or grass, excepting 
possibly in one of the city parks. In 
these sections there are many foreigners from all the nations of the earth. 
To escape the necessity of living in crowded city homes, tens of thou- 
sands of men have their dwellings in suburban towns or country homes, 



Fig. 7'J. 

One of the high buildings in lower New 
York. How many stories has it? 




New York City elevated railway skirting 
the border of one of the city parks. 




Fig. 81. 
Map to show the location of New York City and Philadelphia. 




ES TO ONE INCH. 



Fig. S2. 
Map to show the location of Baltimore and Washington. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 11 

from ten to forty miles from their places of business. They spend from 
one to three hours daily travelling back and forth. A part of the time 
they ride upon elevated railways that are built in the street, two, three, 
and four stories above the ground, and supported by iron columns (Fig. 80). 
How different all this is from the country, where only two or three 
houses are to be seen at a time ! Where sunlight and fresh air enter 
one's home from all sides of the building ! Where there is plenty of 
rooni to play, with green grass, large trees, and singing birds in the yard ! 
No wonder that people living in great cities are anxious to visit the 
country, the mountains, the lakes, and the ■ seashore, during a few weeks 
in the summer. 

Largely owing to the enormous population of New York City, 
with its immense manufacturing interests and great wealth, New 
York is called the Empire State, ranking first in the Union in popu- 
lation, manufacturing, commerce, and wealth (Figs. 206 and 236). 

New York State is prominent for its educational institutions also. In 
New York City is Columbia University ; and at Ithaca, on Lake Cayuga, 
in the central part of the state, is Cornell University. Both of these 
should be associated with Princeton University in New Jersey, and Har- 
vard and Yale universities in New England, as among the most important 
educational institutions in the country. In Virginia is the very old and 
well-known University of Virginia. Besides this, north of New York 
City, on the Hudson Eiver, is West Point, the place where the govern- 
ment school for the training of army officers is located. Also at Pough- 
KEEPSiE is Vassar, one of the great colleges for women, like Smith and 
Wellesley in Massachusetts, and Bryn Mawr near Philadelphia. 

Philadelphia and its Chief Shipping Routes. — The leading cities 
southwest of New York are located along the fall line. Name them 
as far as Richmond (Fig. 59). The greatest is Philadelphia, which 
is the third in size in the Union, containing about 1,300,000 inhab- 
itants. As in the case of New York, other important cities are near 
by, as Tkenton and Camden, New Jersey, Chester and Noreis- 
TOWX, Pennsylvania, and Wilmingtoist, Delaware. Water deej) 
enough for ocean vessels reaches as far inland as Philadelphia, and 
its nearness to the coal fields renders it a great shipping point for 
coal, which is sent to New England and the Southern States. 

As in the case of New York, numerous great railway lines enter 
Philadelphia, connecting it not only with the other cities of Pennsyl" 
vania, such as Harrisburg, the capital, and Pittsburg, but also 
with the. Among these lines are the Pennsylvania Railway, and the 
Baltimore and Ohio, two of the greatest of the country. There are 
also many steamship lines from Philadelphia (Fig. 81). 



78 



NORTH AMERICA 



A number of canals have been built in Pennsylvania, as in New 
York ; but owing to the mountainous nature of the country, there 




Fig. 83. 
One of our great war ships ready to be launched. 

is no canal connection between Philadelphia and the Great Lakes. 
Therefore Ekie, the city in Pennsylvania which would most naturally 

compare with Buffalo, is much 
smaller; but being near the coal 
and iron, it is an important manu- 
facturing city. 

Philadelphia and the neigh- 
boring city of Camden, being 
good shipping points, are also 
great manufacturing centres. The 
coal and iron near by lead to the 
manufacture of cars, heavy ma- 
chinery, and steel ships (Fig. 83) 
at Philadelphia and Wilming- 
ton. Great quantities of clothing 
are also made in Philadelphia, 
as in Boston and New York ; 
and in carpet manufacture Phila- 
delphia is the most important city in the country. 

Philadelphia is called the Quaker City, having been founded by Will- 
iam Penn and other Quakers, many of whose descendants still live there. 




Fig. 
Independence Hall, Philadelphia. 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 79 

It was the home of Benjamin Franklin, and for a number of years, before 
Washington was built, it was the capital of the United States. Indepen- 
dence Hall is still preserved, in which the Declaration of Independence 
was made and the Constitution of the United States was drawn up. The 
leading educational institution there is the University of Pennsylvania. 

Baltimore. — At the head of Chesapeake Bay, in Maryland, is the 
beautiful city of Baltimore, the sixth in size in the United States. 
Since it has a good harbor, and is connected with the West by railways 
(Fig. 82), and also has access to the coal fields of Pennsylvania and 




Fig. 85. 
The National Capitol, at Washington. 

West Virginia, Baltimore has become a noted manufacturing city 
and shipping port, like Boston, Philadelphia, and New York. Like 
them, also, it has a multitude of manufacturing interests. 

Baltimore is the seat of Johns Hopkins University; and a few miles 
south, at Ajv^napolis, is the United States Naval Academy, which prepares 
officers for the navy, as West Point educates men for the army. 

District of Columbia. — Southwest of Baltimore, on the Potomac 
River, in the District of Columbia, is the beautiful city of Wash- 
ington, our national capital (Fig. 82). When first set aside, this 
district was near the centre of the settled part of the country. 

Washington is unlike other cities in two respects. In the first 
place, since there was a certainty that it would one day be very 
large, it was carefully planned, with wide streets and many parks. 

In the second place, the inhabitants are not chiefly interested, as 
in other large cities, in manufacturing and commerce. Here reside 



80 NORTH AMERICA 

the President and his cabinet, members of Congress, foreign ambas- 
sadors, and other representatives of the great nations of the world. 
Besides these there are about twenty thousand men and women 
engaged in the work of the different departments of the govern- 
ment. Tlie chief buildings, therefore, are not factories and private 
office buildings, but great government buildings (Fig. 85). 

Richmond and Norfolk. — Richmond, the largest city of Virginia, 
is at the head of tide water on the James River. It is, therefore, an 
important shipping point, as is also Norfolk on the coast. What 
other cities are in this vicinity ? Name the rivers of the state which 
cut through some of the Appalachian ranges. It was along one of 
these routes, through Cumberland Gap, that the early settlers passed 
to found the states of Kentucky and Tennessee. The Avater gaps 
have made it possible for railways to connect the iron and coal mines 
of Virginia and West Virginia with the coast, so that several of the 
coast cities are very important shipping points, especially for coal. 

More than half of the inhabitants of Virginia are engaged in 
agriculture, and farm products are, therefore, important articles for 
transportation. One of the most fertile farming sections in the 
country is the limestone valley of the Shenandoah, in which the 
famous Luray Cave and Natural Bridge are situated. Locate these 
(Fig. 62). Richmond has already been mentioned as a leading 
market for tobacco ; and Norfolk is a great shipping point for cotton. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

Review Questions and Topics. — (1) Describe the physiography of these 
states: — the Appalachian Mountains; the Piedmont plateau; the coastal plains; 
the fall line and its importance ; the effect of the mountain barrier on westward 
migration ; the effect of the -glacier ; the coast line. (2) Tell about the climate : 

— its variations, and their effects on crops and seashore resorts. (3) Tell about the 
forests : — where theyare ; whatwoods they contain ; cities ; forest reserves. (4) What 
fish are found along the coast? (.5) Describe the oyster fishing. (6) What 
cities are noted for their oyster industry? (7) Where is farming carried on? 
What kinds ? (8) Describe dairying. (9) Describe the tobacco industry : 

— the first use of the weed; where raised; at what cities manufactured; the 
tobacco plant; uses to which it is put. (10) Tell about fruit raising: — where 
carried on ; kinds ; uses to which each is put ; cities that are greatly benefited 
by the industry. (11) State how farming and other industries are dependent on 
one another. (12) Tell about salt: — how formed; where found; how obtained. 
(13) State what you can about coal : — tell how coal was formed ; how the two kinds 
differ ; why some anthracite is left ; to what uses it is put ; how it is mined ; the 
cities it has helped to locate ; how the miners live. (14) Tell the story of petroleum 
and natural gas: — where found ; how obtained ; to what uses put. (15) Do the 
same for iron ore. (16) Describe the process of obtaining pig iron. (17) In what 



MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 81 

three forms is iron used? Mention some of the articles made of each. (18) Name 
the principal cities engaged in the iron manufacture. Find each on the map. 
(19) In what ways are the farmers and the einployees of the Osborne factory of 
use^toone another? (20) Tell about each of the other kinds of manufacturing 
mentioned. (21) For what is each of the cities important? Find each on the 
map. (22) What large cities are near New York? (23) By what water route are 
New York and Albany connected? (24) New York and Buffalo? (25) Describe 
the Erie Canal: — its value; how boats pass over it; the cities it has helped to 
locate. (26) Why has Buffalo grown so large? (27) Jersey City ? (28) Describe 
New York City: — its location ; how it is connected with other sections; the in- 
dustries; its influence upon other cities; how the people live; how they travel 
about ; how their life differs from life in the country. (29) What universities are 
mentioned? Where is each? (30) Tell about Philadelphia: — -why it has be- 
come so large; cities near by; other cities; other facts mentioned. (31) 'For 
what is Baltimore noted? (32) What cities near by? (33) What city in Dis- 
trict of Columbia? What is the principal occupation of the inhabitants? 

Review by States : Neiv York (N.Y.). — (1) Where are the mountains? 
(2) What are their names ? (3) What are the industries there? Why not agri- 
culture among the mountains ? (4) What about the relief of the rest of the state ? 
(5) What effect has that upon agriculture? (6) What waters form parts of the 
boundary of the state? (7) Into what rivers do the lakes empty? (8) What 
rivers drain New York? (9) State clearly the importance of the Erie Canal. 
(10) Which cities mentioned in the text are on the canal or on the Hudson ? In 
what industry is each engaged ? (11) What other cities of New York are men- 
tioned? For what is each important? (12) Compare New York in size with all 
of New England. Remember that the scales of the two maps are different. 
(13) Draw a map of New York like that of Maine (p. 57). When studying each 
of the other states, do the same for it. 

Neiv Jersey (N.J.). — (14) Why should peaches grow better in New Jersey 
than in New England? (15) Name and locate each of the cities mentioned in the 
text. For what is each important? (16) Make a list of the five largest cities in 
New Jersey, and compare them with the five largest in New York. (For their 
populations, see Appendix, pp. iv-vii.) (17) In what ways are some of the largest 
cities dependent upon the products of Pennsylvania ? (18) Add together the 
populations of all the lai'ge cities near New York (see map, Fig. 62) to see how 
Isivge it would be if it could include those in New Jersey. 

Pennsylvania (Pa. or Penn.).- — (19) Where would you look for the best farm 
land? (20) The principal forests ? (21) The leading coalmines? (22) Where 
are the principal cities? "Why located where they are? (23) Make a list of the 
five largest cities, and compare their size with the five largest in New York and 
New Jersey. (24) Why are there fewer lakes in Pennsylvania than in New York? 
(25) Should you expect to find fewer waterfalls also? (Seep. 10.) (26) Why, 
then, is manufacturing so important in this state? (27) What kind of manu- 
facturing is especially important? Why? (28) AVhat advantage do you see in 
the position of Pittsburg and Allegheny at the junction of two rivers? (29) Through 
what states would one pass in going by boat from Pittsburg to the Gulf ? (See 
map. Fig. 44.) (30) Measure the length and width of Pennsylvania. Also find 
its area (Appendix, p. iii.) Remember that number, for in many of our maps 
the outline of Pennsylvania is used to show the comparative size of other sections. 
(31) Is Pennsylvania larger or smaller than New York? Virginia? New Eng- 
land ? (32) Is it larger or smaller than the state you live in? How much? 



82 " NORTH AMERICA 

Delaioare (Del.). — (33) Which is the principal city in this state? (34) For 
what is it noted? (35) Why is it especially well situated for that industry? 
(36) Compare its size with New York, Buffalo, Pittsburg, and Albany. (37) The 
principal industries of the state are fruit raising and farming. What two reaspns 
can you give why it is well fitted for these? (38) Have you ever eaten any 
Delaware fruit? 

Maryland (Md.). — (39) In which section is farming most impoi'tant? Why? 
(40) Of what importance are the mountains ? (41) Notice how branching Chesa- 
peake Bay is. Why is it so irregular ? (42) What influence should you think 
this would have upon the number of oysters found there? (43) Why is Baltimore 
favorably situated for receiving coal and iron from Pennsylvania ? (44) For can- 
ning fruit, vegetables, and oysters? (45) What would be the effect upon the 
growth of Baltimore if the land should rise again so that Chesapeake Bay disap- 
peared and the Susquehanna flowed through it ? (46) Compare the size of Balti- 
more with Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. 

Virginia (Va.). — In what other state was the capital the most important city? 
(47) Describe the tobacco industry. (48) Which cities are engaged in its manu- 
facture? (49) What river separates Virginia from Maryland? (50) What river 
crosses the middle of Virginia? (51) Compare Richmond in size with Albany. 
(52) How does Virginia rank in ii'on production (Fig. 222) ? 

Weiit Virginia (W. Va.). — (53) AVhat disadvantage is it to this state that it 
has no seacoast ? (54) How would we reach the ocean by water from West Vir- 
ginia ? (55) Where is the largest city ? Why there ? (56) How does it compare 
in size with Pittsburg ? (57) Should you expect to find much forest in this state ? 
(58) Much farming? (59) Coal, u"on, petroleum, and natural gas are found 
there. Of what value are these? (60) What mountain range in the east? 

General. — (61) Describe the surface features of this group of states from the 
relief map (Fig. 63). (62) Describe the differences in climate in the different 
parts. (63) State the principal industries of the Middle Atlantic States. 
(64) Make a list of the ten largest cities. Add their populations together, and 
compare the result with the ten largest in New England. (See Appendix, pp. 
iv-vii.) 

Suggestions. — (1) Collect pictui-es of .Niagara Falls. Learn something 
about the use of Niagara power. (2) Examine a live oyster or clam, to see what 
holds the shells together. What do you suppose is the object of the shell? 
(3) The duty paid to the United States government on a pound of smoking to- 
bacco is 12 cents. How much is that per ounce? (4) Find where the canned 
fruits and vegetables in your neighboring gTocery store have come from. (5) Make 
a collection of the kinds of coal. Of coke and u'on ore. (6) In small bottles 
collect the products made from petroleum. (7) Collect samples of cast iron, 
wrought iron, and steel. (8) Estimate on the map (Fig. 44) the distance by water 
from New York City to Duluth. (9) Find the population in the ten largest cities 
along the Great Lakes by adding the numbers given in the Appendix. (10) Visit 
a canal and examine a lock. (11) Make a toy canal having a lock in it. (12) Give 
reasons why freight rates on canals ai-e cheaper than those on railways. (13) Write 
a composition, giving the reasons why one might prefer to live in a large city ; why 
one might prefer to live in the country. (14) Collect pictures of scenes in a lai'ge 
city; in the country. (15) Can you give a reason why the Erie Canal should 
have reached to Lake Erie instead of to Ontario? (16) Make a drawing of these 
states, including the principal rivers and cities. Locate the capitals. 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 




Fig. 87. 

Map Questions. — (1) In what three parts of this section are- mountains foum 
(2) What are the names of the mountains? (3) Which states have no mountain 
(4) What are the principal tributaries to the largest river of the section? (5) Throu, 
what states would you pass in going by water from New Orleans to Chattanoog 
(6) Find some natural boundaries in this section. (7) Compare the coast with that 




New England. Why the difference? (8) Why are there so few lakes? (9) The rivers 
that rise in western Texas — ^^as the Colorado — are often perfectly dry in the western 
third of their course. Why? (10) Name the states in this group. (11) Find the capi- 
tal of each. (12) Which of the states have a seacoast? (13) Which have none? 
(14) Which horder the Mississippi? (15) Which drain into that river? (16) Can you 
give reasons why the largest city is near the mouth of the Mississippi ? 




Fig. 88. 
Map to show location of New Orleans, Memphis, Birmingham, and Atlanta. 



VII. SOUTHERN STATES 



M 



Physiography. — Almost the entire area included in this group of 
states is made up of plains. The most level portions are the delta 
and flood plain of the Mississippi, and the coastal plains, which skirt 
the entire Gulf and Atlantic coast of the Southern States (Fig. 43). 
The coastal plains are very level ; and, since the rainfall is heavy, 
they are often swampy, especially near the rivers. Their higher 
portions are more irregular and better drained ; but, since the soil is 
sandy, there are large areas which are too barren for agriculture and 
are therefore still covered b}^ an open pine forest. 

West of the coastal plains that border the Atlantic, and separated 
from them by the fall line (Fig. 59), is the still higher Piedmont 

plateau, which extends to the 

base of the Appalachians. The 
Piedmont section has a good 
drainage and excellent soil, so 
tha;t it is the seat of extensive 
agriculture, especially cotton and 
tobacco raising. This plateau 
slopes gradually from the base of 
the Appalachians, where its eleva- 
tion is about 1000 feet above sea 
level, to the fall line, where the 
elevation of the plain is from 100 
to 500 feet above the sea. It is really a region of old mountains 
worn down to a rolling and, in places, slightly hilly plain. 

On Figure 87 it will be seen that the Appalachian Mountains, 
with their rich coal beds, continue southwestward from Virginia 
into Alabama. In the Southern States these mountains are gener- 
rally low, as they are in the Middle Atlantic States ; but in western 
North Carolina and eastern Tennessee the mountains are much 
higher. In fact, the highest peak east of the Mississippi River 
is Mt. Mitchell in North Carolina. It is 6711 feet in altitude, or 
418 feet higher tlian Mt. Washington in New Hampshire. 

83 



,j«^_ ^-^^ 



Fig. 89. 

A view in the mountainous section of the 
extreme western part of Texas. 



84 NOBTH AMERICA 

As in Pennsylvania and West Virginia, there is a rougli plateau 
west of the Appalachians. This plateau is deeply cut by river 
valleys, and is so rugged that it is still covered by extensive for- 
ests and has few inhabitants. Still farther west are the broad 
and fertile plains of the Mississippi Valley and of Texas. These are 
interrupted by some low mountains in Indian Territory, Arkansas, 
and Texas. 

In western Texas the plains rise until they become high plateaus, 
reaching an elevation of 4000 to 5000 feet near the base of the spurs 
of the Rocky Mountains, which extend into Texas (Fig. 89). 

The coast line is much more regular than that of New England. As 
has been stated (p. 12), this part of the continent has been raised instead 
of lowered. However, after the continental shelf was lifted enough to 
form the coastal plains, there came a slight sinking, though much less 
than in New England. This sinking has admitted the ocean waters into 
the valleys, forming shallow bays and poor harbors. Sand bars, built by 
waves and tides, have made these harbors even poorer; and each year 
large sums of money are spent by the government in dredging the sand 
away from the harbor entrances. 

Bars are built, not only opposite the bays, but also where the storm 
waves break in the shallow water ofE shore. It is in this way that 
Capes Hatteras, and Fear have been built, as well as the long chain of 
bars along the low southern coast. The waves throw the sand up in 
banks, and the winds pile it still higher, forming sand dunes. These facts 
partly explain the reason why there are not so many large coast cities in 
the South as there are along the irregular northern coast. 

Still another kind of coast is found in southern Florida, where count- 
less millions of coral polyps live in the warm waters of the Gulf Stream. 
These have built the limestone rock which forms the southern part of the 
Florida peninsula and also the many reefs and small islands, or keys, 
which lie just south of Florida. 

Climate. — The low plains of the Southern States lie so far south 
that the climate is everywhere warm ; and the damp winds from the 
Gulf bring an abundant rainfall to them. These conditions make 
it possible to raise cotton, sugar-cane, and rice, which cannot be 
grown in the colder Northern States. In southern Florida, semi- 
tropical and even tropical fruits are easily raised. Among the 
Florida fruits are oranges, lemons, pineapples (Fig. 90), cocoanuts, 
and bananas. What is the latitude of southern Florida ? 

During the cold and disagreeable Northern winter, the Southern weather 
is mild, like spring and autumn in the North. Flowers are in blossom 



SOUTH EEN STATES 



86 



and birds are singing, many of them having migrated there for the winter. 
Large numbers of Northern people also go South to spend the winter at 
such resorts as Jacksonville and St. Augustine. The latter, founded 

in 1565, is one of the early Spanish 
settlements. One of the important 
winter industries of the inhabitants is 
the entertainment of these visitors. 

While Northern people travel South 
in winter to escape the cold, many 
Southerners go North in summer to 
escape the heat. Others summer among 
the high mountains, where the climate 
is cool, even in midsummer. The best- 
known mountain resort is Asheville in 
North Carolina. In some places, as 
Hot Springs, Arkansas, there are min- 
eral springs, to which people resort to 

^, . , ' . ' . ^, . , be cured of certain diseases. 

The pineapple growing in Florida. 




Western Texas has a different climate from the other parts of 
the South. Being too far from the sea to be reached by damp 
winds, it receives little rain. The occupations are influenced accord- 
ingly. As one travels westward from the Gulf, he passes from the 
warm, damp coastal plains to a semi-aricl country. At first there 
are dense forests ; then come plains with scattered trees, especially 
the live oak (Fig. 91): 
beyond these are broad 
prairies without trees, 
but with extensive cotton 
fields. Next a section is 
reached which is too dry 
for cotton, and this coun- 
try, fitted only for ranch- 
ing, stretches westward 
for several hundred miles. 

Forests. — Extensive 
areas in the Southern 
States are timber-cov- 
ered, and among the 
forests are found many 
trees unknown in the North, some of them, such as the magnolias, 
bearing large, sweet-scented flowers. There are forests not merely 




Fig. 91. 

A live oak grove with the Southern moss hanging from 
the limbs. 



86 



NORTH AMERICA 



among the mountains, but also on the coastal plains, especially where 
the soil is sandy (Fig. 92). The method of lumbering is somewhat 
different from that in New England (p. 42). Instead of floating 
the logs down to tide water by means of the spring freshets, saw- 
mills are located in the midst of the forests, if possible on the river 
banks. To them the logs are brought, either by water, by wagon, 
or by train, and are sawed into lumber. 

The long-leaved or hard pine, often called the Georgia pine, which 
grows on the sandy coastal plains, is much used for flooring in the 
North. It is shipped North from the coastal cities of Chaklbston, 
South Carolina, Savannah and Brunswick, Georgia, Jackson- 
ville and Pensacola, Florida, and Mobile, Alabama. 

While the pine thrives on the low, sandy plains, the hardy oak 
and other trees are found upon the plateaus and among the moun- 
tains. Quantities of hard wood are shipped from Memphis, Ten- 
nessee ; but although much of the pine, oak, and other lumber is 
sent North, a great deal of it is manufactured into doors, blinds, 

furniture, etc., in the 
South, as at High Point, 
North Carolina, Macon 
and Montgomery on 
the fall line, and at At- 
lanta. There is also 
lumber manufacturing 
at the coast cities already 
mentioned, as well as in 
many other Southern 
cities. 




Fig. 92. 
A scene in the pine forest of the Southern coastal plains. 



These forests are of 
value in two other ways. 
From them are obtained 
turpentine and tannic acid, the liquid in which hides are soaked to make 
leather (p. 52). In the Northern States hemlock bark furnishes a tannic 
acid which gives the leather a red color, so that shoes made from it need 
to be blackened ; but tannic acid from the chestnut oak of the South gives 
a lighter or tan color, and it is from such leather that tan shoes are made. 



Agriculture 

Although farming is carried on in all the states we have thus far 
studied, other occupations are followed by great numbers of people. 



SOUTHERN STATES 87 

Give examples. In the South, however, with its excellent soil and 
warm climate, agriculture is the principal industry. Indeed, until 
recently, there was almost no other industry excepting commerce. 

While the climate makes it possible to raise crops which cannot 
be grown in the cooler Northei'n States, some products are the same 
as those of the North. For instance, tobacco raising, already de- 
scribed as an industry of great importance in Virginia, is also ex- 
tensively carried on in Tennessee and North Carolina. Claeks- 
viLLE, Tennessee, and Durham, North Carolina, are centres for this 
industry. Name some Virginia cities likewise engaged in it. 

Cotton. — The crop in the South that surpasses every other in 
value is cotton. The early colonists soon discovered that cotton 



Fig. 93. 
Negro homes in the cotton belt. 

could easily be raised, and that a ready market awaited the crop 
abroad. Their fields were far too large to be cultivated without 
many laborers, and negro slaves, offered for sale at that time in 
many parts of the world, were found especially suited to work in the 
cotton fields. In this way it came about that cotton had much to 
do with the spread of slavery in the Southern States. 

It is owing to the system of slavery that there are now eight 
million negroes in this country. Among the mountains of North 
Carolina and other states, where cotton, rice, and sugar-cane cannot 
thrive, and where the farms must be small, there are whole coun- 
ties where there are almost no negroes ; but in portions of some of 
the Soutliern States they far outnumber the whites. Most of the 
negroes still make their living by working in the cotton fields, for 
cotton is the principal crop all the way from North Carolina to 
Texas. 



88 NORTH AMERICA 

In 1898 the Southern States produced about 11,000,000 bales of cotton, 
each weighing nearly 500 pounds. Of this, about 7,500,000 bales were 
shipped abroad, especially to England. The remainder was manufactured 
at home, particularly in New England and the South. In the same year 
the entire world produced a little over 17,000,000 bales, which makes it 
clear that the United States furnishes much more than half of all the 
cotton grown. When we remember that much of our clothing is made of 
cotton, it is evident that the Southern States make it their chief work to 
help clothe the various peoples of the world. 

Cotton requires rather fertile soil and a long, warm summer with an 
abundance of rain. These conditions exist throughout the regions marked 
as the cotton belt in Figure 213; but, on account of the short summer 
season, they are wanting in the North. 




Fig. 94. 
Negroes picking cotton. 

Cotton seeds are planted in the spring, in rows about three feet apart, 
and the weeds are kept out until the plants are nearly grown. They 
reach a height of about three feet, and develop large blossoms that pro- 
duce a pod, in which the cotton and cotton seed are contained. On matur- 
ing, the pod bursts open, revealing a white woolly ball, known as the cotton 
boll, which in appearance resembles the downy substance in the thistle and 
in the pod of the milkweed. 

When a great number of these pods have split open, a cotton planta- 
tion of five or six hundred acres presents a beautiful sight, — much like 
a field flecked with snow (Fig. 94). Then the busy season for the pickers 
begins. As many as two or three hundred negroes — men, women, and 
children — may assemble in one field, carrying bags and picking cotton, 
singing melodies, and chattering in the negro dialect the livelong day. 

When plucked from the pods, the cotton is attached to seeds, and these 
must be removed before the cotton can be of use. The seedless cotton is 



SOUTHERN STATES . 89 

tightly pressed into bales of about five hundred pounds, which are then 
covered with coarse jute bagging, bound with iron bands, and shipped 
away to the warehouses, to be sold. 

Rice. — This is one of the most valuable food products of the 
world, being- the main support of millions of people, as the Chinese, 
for example. Although it is not a staple food in the United 
States, we do not raise even enough for our own use. Rice re- 
quires a warm climate and a clamp soil, such as prevail on the 
low coastal and flood plains from the Carolinas to Texas. Although 




Fig. 95. 
Bales of cotton at a railway station in the South. 

raised throughout that section, the largest quantity comes from 
Louisiana. 

In the cultivation of rice, after preparing the ground, as for other 
grains, and planting the seeds, it is usually necessary to flood the fields 
from ditches. As the plant grows, it forms a slender stalk, upon the top 
of which appears a head of seed somewhat resembling a head of oats, and 
commonly reaching a height of from three and a half to six feet. Just 
before the harvest season the water is drawn off, so that horses may enter 
the field, and the grain is then cut and the kernels thrashed out, as in the 
case of wheat. After the hull is removed, the grains are polished at such 
cities as New Orleans, Savannah, and Charleston, and are then ready 
for market. 

Sugar-cane and Sugar. — There are a number of plants from 
whose sap sugar is made. One of these, the sugar maple, has already 
been mentioned (p. 45) ; another is the sugar beet, raised in great 
quantities in some of the European countries, and also, of late, in 
many parts of the United States. This beet is a very important 
source of sugar, because it can be raised in the cool temperate cli- 
mate. For a long time, however, the principal source of sugar has 
been the sugar-cane, a plant that looks somewhat like corn. 



90 



NORTH AMEBIC A 



This plant requires a fertile soil and grows only in warm regions, 
where there is practically no frost even in winter. For this reason the 

most cane sugar comes 
from tropical lands, such 
as the Hawaiian Islands, 
the Philippines, Porto 
Rico, and Cuba (Figs. 
251 and 507). In our 
own country the most 
noted sugar district is 
the delta of the Missis- 
sippi in Louisiana. 

In that section there 
Fig. 96. are large sugar plantations, 

A sugar-cane field in Louisiana, with the sugar houses in some of them having SBV- 
the background. g^al thousand acres planted 

in sugar-cane. Either in the fall or spring, the cane is planted in rows 
about six feet apart, and a crop is raised every twelve months, being cut 
in the fall after the middle of October. The stalks grow to be two or more 
inches in diameter, and reach such a height that a man riding through them 
on horseback may easily be entirely hidden from view (Fig. 97). As 
soon as the stalks are cut, they are drawn to the sugar house in wagons, 
or, on the larger plantations, in railway cars. 

There the cane is ground between rollers in order to squeeze out the 
juice, which is so acid that it must next be treated with lime. The waste 





Fig. 97. 
Negro women cutting the sugar-cane in Louisiana. 

cane, after the juice is pressed out, is used as a fuel to run the engines of 
the sugar house (Fig. 96), and the sap is placed in large vats and warmed 
to evaporate the water in it. As a result, two products are formed, — a 
thick as black molasses and brown sugar. Some large sugar houses 
produce much as fourteen million pouuds of sugar a year. 



SOUTHERN STATES 91 

The crude sugar is sent from the sugar house to the refinery, 
either in New Orleans (Fig. 100), or in the North. At the re- 
finery it is changed to white sugar by a complicated process, as a 
result of which the various grades of granulated, powdered, and 
lump sugar are produced. In changing the brown to the white 
sugar, burned bones, called bone black, are made use of to filter out 
the impurities. The bones are obtained from Chicago and elsewhere, 
where large numbers of animals are killed for meat. 

The molasses is used for various purposes, some of it, especially 
in the West Indies, being consumed in the manufacture of rum. 
Molasses is a by-product, like sawdust in a lumber mill, and is not 
considered of much value by the sugar raiser. 

Fruits. — Fruits, such as watermelons, apples, peaches, pears, and 
grapes, flourish in the warm climate of the Southern States. Florida, 
however, is so far south that it has fruits of an entirely different 
kind. There are orange and lemon groves in many parts of the 
state ; but in the northern part the trees have been greatly injured 
by frosts. During cold waves (p. 8), cool air from the North 
sweeps over the Southern States even as far as Florida, sometimes 
causing great destruction. Farther south, where frosts never ap- 
pear, are found the more tender tropical plants, such as cocoanuts 
and pineapples (Fig. 90). The latter grow especially well on the 
low coral keys, the plant resembling an arid land plant with the 
pineapple nestled in the midst of sharp-pointed leaves. 

Florida and other Southern fruits are sent in great quantities to 
the Northern States, where they appear in the markets early in the 
spring. Thousands of bushels at a time are shipped by fast train 
and steamer. They are sent together with early vegetables, and are 
intended for hundreds of cities and towns in the North. 

Other Crops. — Many other crops besides those thus far named are 
raised in the South, corn and wheat being among the most important. An 
immense quantity of corn is produced, and over almost as wide an area as 
cotton itself ; but since corn and wheat are raised so much more exten- 
sively in states farther north, they are treated later (pp. 108 and 109). 

Peanuts and sweet potatoes are two important products of these 
states, particularly of North Carolina. Stock of various kinds, as horses, 
cattle, sheep, and hogs, is also raised, each plantation usually having some 
of these animals. In the open j)ine forests of the Florida and Georgia 
coastal plains, large numbers of cattle are raised. 

An important animal in the South, and one which makes a strong 
draft animal well suited to a warm climate, is the mule. On the fertile 




92 NORTH AMERICA 

plains, especially in Tennessee and Kentucky, much attention is paid to 
raising mules and fine breeds of horses. 

Grazing. — In western Texas, where the rainfall is insufficient for 
agriculture, grazing is the chief industry. The climate is so dry 
that the grass cures and 
becomes ha}^ while still 
upon the ground, thus 
offering such excellent 
food for cattle and sheep 
that ranching is a thriving 
business. One may travel 
for two or three hundred ^^^^- ■'"*• 

miles westward over the Cattle on the Great Plains of Texas. 

plains, seeing little else than a ranch-house here and there, with an 
occasional herd of cattle or sheep, and cowboys riding to and fro. 

A¥hile there is no reason for large cities in this section, and the 
life of the cowboys and sheep herders is a lonely one, it is their work 
that helps to supply our tables with meat and to cover our bodies 
with woollen clothing and with shoes. Explain how hundreds of 
New England families are dependent for their daily meat upon the 
products of these distant ranches. Here is a case in which the most 
densely populated section is intimately related to a very sparsely 
settled portion of the country. 

Mineral Products 

Coal and Iron. — Coal and iron ore constitute the principal min- 
eral wealth of the South. These two minerals occur among the 
mountain ranges all the way from Pennsylvania to the Southern 
States. They are mined in several places, as near Chattanooga 
in eastern Tennessee ; but the most noted of all is a district at 
the extreme end of the Appalachian system around Birmingham, 
Alabama. This region is so rich in these products that it now ranks 
as the second iron-producing section of the continent. 

We learned that Pennsylvania enjoyed a great advantage in 
having iron ore and coal near together ; but in Birmingham even 
more favorable conditions are found. That city has grown up in 
the midst of a valley, around the margin of which are found iron 
ore, coal, and limestone, the three materials necessary for the pro- 
duction of iron and steel. In consequence, this section has become 
a great manufacturing centre. 



SOUTHERN STATES 



93 



Stone. — A large amount of building stone, especially granite and 
marble, is found in northern Georgia; and near Knoxville, in eastern 
Tennessee, mucli marble of different colors is quarried. AVhat city in 
Vermont is likewise noted for marble ? (p. 46.) 

Gold and Precious Stones. — In the mountainous portion of western 
Georgia and North Carolina there is a gold-producing belt which formerly 
yielded much gold, and from which some is still obtained. Occasionally, 
too, precious stones, as sapphires and diamonds, are found. 

Phosphates. — The soil of farms often becomes worn out and needs 
a fertilizer. There are various kinds of fertilizers, as manure and bone- 
dust, which furnish the plant-food needed by crops ; but one of the most 
important fertilizers is mineral phosphate. This is found in great quan- 
tities in Florida, Tennessee, and South Carolina. It is a deposit in which 
are found fossil remains of many animals, such as the teeth of sharks, and 
the bones and teeth of many large land animals. Among the latter is the 
huge mastodon, which lived in this country long before white men came. 
This fertilizer is so valuable that it is shipped to the JSTorthern States from 
CHAELESTOisr, JACKSONVILLE, and Tampa, to be used on the farms. 

Salt and Oil. — Salt is obtained in Louisiana and in Texas ; and recent 
discoveries of vast quantities of oil in Texas have made that state one of 
the most noted oil-producing regions in the world. 



Manufactueing 

Birmingham, the leading manufacturing centre of the South, is 
located on an old cotton plantation. In 1880 it had a population of 
3086 ; but it now contains 
about forty thousand per- 
sons. What special ad- 
vantage has it? In this 
city, as in Pittsburg and 
Allegheny, the iron ore is 
reduced to iron in blast 
furnaces (p. 69), and then 
changed to steel and vari- 
ous other useful articles. 
Several other cities near 
the mountains are also noted for their iron manufacturing, as Rome 
and Atlanta, Georgia, and Knoxville and Chattanooga, 
Tennessee. 

Before the war there was very little manufacturing in the South. One 
reason for this was that water power is not common there, and another 
that the negroes, who did most of the manual labor, lacked the training 




Fig. 99. 
A cotton factory at Huntsville, Alabama. 



94 NOBTR AMERICA 

necessary to handle machinery. At that time nearly all of the slaves were 
unable to read or write ; but now only about half of the colored people 
are illiterate. The raw materials were shipped away, and manufactured 
articles brought back. Thus the cotton went to England, New England, 
and elsewhere, some of it to be returned in the form of clothes ; and the 
lumber was shipped to various Northern cities to be sent back in the 
form of furniture. The iron ore was little mined. 

This situation is now fast changing. Since the Civil War the 
Southerners have become engaged more actively in manufacturing ; 
many Northerners have moved into the South, and the negroes have 
been advancing. The South has awakened to its great opportunities, 
and the hum of factories is now heard in many places. The iron 
industr}^ is already well developed, and each year new cotton mills 
are being erected. 

Some idea of what one of these cotton mills means may be gained 
from a certain one in Alabama. It employs 600 hands, including men, 
women, boys, and girls, and pays them about $2000 per week in wages. 
Each day this mill consumes 15 bales of cotton, averaging about 500 
pounds ; and since the average yield per acre of land is about 250 pounds, 
you can easily estimate about how many acres of cotton are called for in 
one year by this one mill. White people are employed because many 
employers hold that the negroes lack the intelligence and application 
necessary for such work. But in some places employers hire the negro. 

Texas raises more cotton than any other state, but most of it is 
still shipped away. In that state, in 1897, there were only four 
cotton mills, while North Carolina had about 200. Nor is there 
much cotton manufacturing in Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. 

Formerly the cotton seeds were slowly picked out of the cotton by 
hand, and then thrown away. Whitney's invention of the Cotton Giu,^ in 
1793, enabled one laborer to separate from the seed as much as 1000 
potinds in the time that was formerly required to clean five or six by hand. 
That, of course, made cotton raising far more profitable, and had an im- 
mense influence upon the amount produced, as well as upon the number of 
slaves needed. 

Instead of being thrown away, the cotton seeds are now saved. There 
are two or three pounds of seeds to one pound of fibre ; and since, on the V 
average, one acre produces about 250 pounds of seedless cotton, the quantity 
of seed from a 600-acre plantation is very large. It was an immense loss 
when the seeds were thrown away ; but now a kind of oil, called cotton- 
seed oil, is extracted from them, which is used in making soap, imitation 

1 Gin is merely an abbreviation for engine. 



SOUTHERN STATES 95 

butter, and a substitute for olive oil. Further tliaTi that, the part of the 
seed that is left after the oil is pressed out, has been found to be an excel- 
lent food for cattle and a good fertilizer. 

While hundreds of Southern cities and towns now manufacture 
cotton cloth and cotton-seed oil, the most noted are Columbia and 
Greenville, South Carolina, Charlotte, North Carolina, and 
Augusta, Columbus, and Atlanta, Georgia. What cities in 
New England are likewise noted for cotton manufacture ? How do 
they compare in size with these ? (See tables in Appendix 
pp. iv-vii.) 

Some of the other articles manufactured in the South have al- 
ready been mentioned, as furniture and other objects from wood 
(p. 92), tobacco (p. 87), and sugar (p. 89). In each case this 
work is confined mainl}^ to the section in which the raw material is 
raised. For example : New Orleans, in the midst of sugar plan- 
tations, has large sugar refineries; Macon, Montgomery, Mobile, 
Chattanooga, Memphis, and Little Rock, all in the neighbor- 
hood of forests, produce lumber and furniture ; and Raleigh, 
Durham, Winston, and other cities in northern North Carolina 
manufacture tobacco. Which of the manufacturing cities mentioned 
are on the fall line? (Fig. 59.) 

Key West, on a small coral key, south of the Florida peninsula, is 
also noted for its tobacco factories. It is so near Cuba that the Havana 
tobacco, so much prized by cigar smokers, is easily obtained. There is also 
cigar manufacturing at Tampa. Why there ? 

Leading Cities and Shipping Routes 

The largest cities so far studied have been located at points on 
the water where the shipping advantages are superior, and where 
numerous factories have consequently been located. Give examples. 
For reasons already mentioned, the Southern States have not so 
many fine harbors as the Northern States (p. 12). Besides that, 
although many factories have recently been built, the people 'are still 
mainly engaged in farming. On these accounts we cannot expect to 
find so many or so large cities as in the North ; and most of those 
that do exist may be looked for either on the Mississippi River or on 
the coast. 

New Orleans. — The greatest of all Southern cities is New 
Orleans, the largest city in eastern United States south of St. 



96 



NOETH AMERICA 



Louis. It has a population of nearly 300,000, or more than half 
as many as Boston, and is the twelfth in size in the United 
States. When we recall the advantages of New York's water con- 
nection with the West, we can readily explain the growth of New 
Orleans. Pittsburg on the Ohio, St. Paul on the Mississippi, and 
Kansas City on the Missouri, may all be reached from New Orleans 
by boat (Fig. 44). How do these distances compare with those 
from New York to Chicago and to Duluth ? Also how far apart are 
Pittsburg and Kansas City ? 

New Orleans is situated at the gateway to the most productive 
valley in North America. The city is located about one hundred 
miles from the mouth of the Mississippi, at a point to which ocean 




Fig. 100. 

Loading a river steamer at the levee in New Orleans. A large sugar refinery is seen in the 

distance, on the left. 

vessels can ascend, although they dare not venture much beyond it. 
On the map (Fig. 88) you will see that an arm of the sea, called 
Lake Pontchartrain, reaches up to the city, and that New Orleans is 
located at the place where the river and lake are nearest together. 
The stream there makes a bend in the form of a half-circle, which 
explains the reason for the name of Crescent City, commonly 
applied to New Orleans. V 

That particular spot was selected because the sail boats of two 
centuries ago could reach it by crossing the lake, while without great 
difficulty they could not sail a hundred miles up the river. The 
large ocean steamers now in use cannot enter the lake on account 
of the shallow water, but must reach the city by the river route. 



SOUTHERN STATES 



97 




Fig. 101. 

A view in a cemetery in New Orleans, 
where the ground is so wet that the 
dead must be placed in stone tombs 
above ground. 



This they can easily do, since they depend upon steam instead of 
wind. 

Much of the land on which New Orleans rests is frequently below the 
level of the river. In fact, from Memphis southward, a large part of the 
land on either side of the river is 
a low flood plain, spreading out for 
many miles, and often threatened 
with floods. The mighty river, re- 
ceiving tributaries from regious thou- 
sands of miles apart, is charged with 
yellow mud, which gradually sinks 
to the bottom as the current becomes 
slower toward the mouth. This has 
built up the bed of the river, so that 
at high water the floods would spread 
over the broad flood plains if these 
were not protected by strong walls 
of earth, called levees. In spite of 
their strength, these embankments 
occasionally give way, especially in 
the springtime, when the snows are melting in the North; then the 
destruction to life and property is appalling. At such times, hundreds 
of men patrol the levees night and day to check the slightest leak. Even 
a hole made by a crawfish may be the beginning of an awful inundation. 
Why? 

Some peculiar consequences result from this condition. The soil on 
which New Orleans stands is naturally very wet. Indeed, in digging 
foundations for buildings, water is reached a short distance below the 
surface. On that account there can be no cellars under the houses, and it 
is difiicult to provide proper drainage. 

Since the city once belonged to France (p. 25), French is still a common 
language there, one person in six being of French stock. About one 
person in four is colored. 

Frost seldom reaches this city, and the midwinter weather is rarely 
colder than the occasional frosty, early autumn evenings of the North- 
What must be the effect of this climate upon the style of houses ? Also 
upon the presence of birds, flowers, and fruits in winter ? 

Knowing the farm products in this region, we have a key to the 
exports from this point. New Orleans is an important cotton market 
and a centre for sugar, molasses, and rice, besides being a shipping 
point for products from farther up the Mississippi Valley. 

Like New York, this city is now connected with the distant 
interior by rail as well as by water. The Illinois Central Railway 
extends all the way to Chicago, running parallel to the river for 



98 NORTH AMERICA 

much of the distance; the Louisville and Nashville reaches Louisville 
and St. Louis ; and the Southern Railway runs most of the distance 
from New Orleans to Washington, connecting with the Southern 
Pacific, which extends westward, across Texas, to California. 

Memphis and Atlanta. — The cities next in size are Memphis and 
Atlanta (Fig. 88), each having about one hundred thousand 
inhabitants. The former is situated in Tennessee, on a bluff where 
the Mississippi River SAvings out upon its broad flood plain. Why is 
that a favorable location ? Memphis is one of the great cotton cen- 
tres and lumber markets of the South. 

Atlanta, the " Gate City," is one of the few large cities not 
located upon a water route. Northeast of it, for over 350 miles, 
there is no easy pass across the mountains ; and until 1880 no rail- 
way crossed the mountain ranges in all that distance. Near where 
Atlanta stands, however, there is a good route ; and railways reach- 
ing westward from the Carolinas or northern Georgia come together 
there, making Atlanta a great railway centre. Owing to its advan- 
tageous situation, Atlanta is the leading interior wholesale market of 
the South, and surpasses all southern cities in the number and variety 
of its manufactures. 

Other Cities. — Recalling the rough nature of the plateaus west of 
the Appalachians, we can see the reason for the location of Chatta- 
nooga. It is on the Tennessee River at a point which makes it a 
gateway in much the same sense as Atlanta. It is on this account 
that Chattanooga was such an important point during the Civil War, 
as was Atlanta also. 

Nashville, the capital of Tennessee, has saw-mills, furniture 
factories, and flour-mills. Being in the midst of a splendid farming 
country, it is a distributing point for supplies to the neighboring 
towns and farms. It is also one of the educational centres of the 
South, having Vanderbilt University and other important schools. 
There are several other well-known universities in the South. 

Name the leading coast cities of the Southern States. They are chiefly 
engaged in shipping cotton and lumber, and most of them are located near 
the mouths of rivers, so that their goods may be brought to them by water 
as well ^s by rail. The two best known are Charleston and Savannah, 
both noted shipping points even before the Civil War. In Florida is 
located Tampa, a port from which steamships go to Cuba. 

Since cotton is raised to be shipped away, there has been need of a 
large number of small shipping ports along the rivers and coast. There- 



SOUTHERN STATES 



99 



fore, besides the cities already named, most of wliich are extensively en- 
gaged in cotton shipping, we find the cotton ports of Vicksburg, Natchez, 
and Baton Kouge, on the Mississippi, and Shrevepokt and Little Rock 
on tributaries to that river. 

Texas Cities. — This state is the largest in the Union. Find how 
it compares with New England in size (Fig. 44). The western third 
of the state, as was stated on page 98, is fitted mainly for grazing, 
although there is some mining in the mountains. Throughout that 
entire section there are no cities and almost no large towns, except 
in the extreme western corner, where El Paso is situated. The 
word El Paso means " the pass " in Spanish, for this city is situated 
at a pass in the Rocky Mountains, through which the Southern Paci- 
fic Railway passes westward, while an important line extends south- 
ward into Mexico. 

East of the arid and serai-aricl plateau is the fertile cotton belt. 
In this there are many cities, such as Dallas and Foet Worth — 
both shipping points, not 
only for cotton but also for 
cattle from the Western 
plains. Dallas is also a 
busy manufacturing city. 
Austin, the capital, is a 
beautiful city on the Colo- 
rado River, and San An- 
tonio is a quaint Mexican 
town ; for Texas once be- 
longed to the Mexicans, 
but declared its independence in 1836, after which (1845) it was 
taken into the Union. 

Two of the largest cities of. Texas are Houston, near the coast, 
and Galveston, the principal seaport west of New Orleans. 
Immense quantities of cotton and other products are shipped from 
Galveston. It is also a port of outlet for goods from the Far West. 

The Territories. — Many Indian tribes have been given land in 
what is now called the Indian Territory. There is much mineral 
wealth in this territory ; but, owing to the fact that the Indians own 
the land, little can be done to develop it at present. 

Oklahoma, like Texas, is mainly a great plain, arid in the western 
part, but in the eastern half a fertile agricultural district. The 
principal products are corn in the north and cotton in the south. It 

L.orc. 




Fig. 102. 
Scene on an Indian reservation. 



100 NORTH AMERICA 

was formerly a part of the Indian Territory, but in 1890 was opened 
to settlers. Since then its growth has been so marvellous that 
almost all the farm land is now occupied and tilled. There are 
two flourishing cities, — Oklahoma and Guthrie, — and the ter- 
ritory already has enough inhabitants to warrant its request to be 
admitted as a state. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

Review Questions and Topics. — (1) Describe the physiography of these 
states: — the plains and their products; the mountains; the Texas plains; the 
coast — its bars, harbors, and coral keys. (2) Tell about the climate: — how it 
differs from the North; the climate of the mountains; the crops; the winter 
resorts ; the summer resorts ; the arid section. (3) How do the forests and meth- 
ods of lumbering differ from those of Maine? (4) "Which cities have important 
lumber industries? (.5) What besides lumber is obtained in the forests ? (6) What 
about tobacco raising in the South ? (7) Tell about cotton : — the effect in encour- 
aging slavery ; amount produced ; where grown ; method of planting and picking. 
(8) Do the same for rice ; and tell, also, what it is used for. (9) Describe the sugar 
industry : — source of sugar ; where the sugar-cane grows, and why ; method of 
planting and harvesting ; change to sugar, — where done, methods employed, and 
products obtained. (10) What fruits are raised in the South? Why there? 
(11) What other crops are important? (12) Where is grazing carried on? 
Why there? How are we dependent upon these ranchmen? (13) Where are 
coal and iron found? (14) What gx'eat natural advantages has Birmingham? 
(15) What other mineral products are obtained? (16) Tell about the phosphate. 
(17) Where is iron manufacturing carried on? (18) Tell about manufacturing 
in the South: — former condition ; present change; importance of a single cotton 
factory ; the cotton gin ; uses of cotton seed ; cities engaged in cotton manufactur- 
ing; cities engaged in other manufacturing. (19) Why are there not so many 
large cities in the South as in the North? (20) Tell about New Orleans: — the 
reason for its importance ; why located just where it is ; the need of levees ; the 
inhabitants ; the climate ; the industries. (21) For what are Memphis and Atlanta 
important? (22) Chattanooga and Nashville ? (23) What about the river ports ? 
(24) The seaports ? (25) Name the principal cities of Texas and tell for what 
each is noted. (26) Tell about the two territories. 

Review by States: North Carolina (N.C.^ — (1) Which partis mountain- 
ous? Name and locate the highest peak in the East. (2) What two plains in 
this state ? (3) Which cities are mentioned in the text? Where is each? For 
what important? (4) What capes on the coast? (5) What are the industries? 
(See Figs. 209-231.) (6) Draw an outline map of this state like that of Maine; 
and later do the same for each of the other states. 

Tennessee {^Tenn.'). — (7) Where are the mountains? The plains? (8) Name 
two cities among the mountains. For what is each important? (9) Answer the 
same question for two other cities in Tennessee. (10) Which city is the largest ? 
(See table, Appendix, p. vi.) (11) What large river drains the state? Through 
what two large tributaries ? (12) What industries in this state ? 

South Carolina (^S.C). — (13) Describe the physiography of this state. 
(14) What are the principal industries? (15) What city is on the fall line ? On 
theseacoast? For what is each important? (16) Which city is largest ? 



SOUTHERN STATES 101 

Georgia (Ga.). — (17) Where are the mountains? (18) The plains? 
(19) What are the industries in each section? (20) Trace the fall line across 
the state (Fig. 59). What cities are on it? (21) Why is Atlanta situated 
where it is ? (22) How does it compare in size with the largest city in the three 
states just mentioned? (23) How does it compare in size with New Orleans, Bos- 
ton, Buffalo, and Providence ? (24) Name the two seaports. What do they ship ? 

Florida (Fla.). ^(25) Why are there so many lakes in Florida? (See p. 12.) 
(26) What about the relief ? (27) What about the climate ? How does this influ- 
ence the crops ? (28) What Florida cities were jnentioned, and for what is each 
important? (29) What mineral product comes from Florida ? (30) What is the 
principal industry at Key West? Why? 

Alabama (^Ala.'). — (31) Trace the fall line across this state. What cities are 
situated on it ? (32) Where is Mobile ? For what is it important ? (83) Describe 
the location and industries of Birmingham. (34) What crops are raised in Ala- 
bama? (35) What cities are engaged in manufacturing cotton? (36) In lumber 
manufacturing ? (37) Compare Mobile in size with Atlanta and Birmingham. 

Mississippi (Miss.). — (38) Why is there no seaport? (39) In what way can 
theproductsof the state be shipped by water? (40) From what cities ? (41) What 
are the products? (42) Why no mining? (43) What reasons can you give why 
there is so little manufacturing? 

Louisiana {La.). — (44) State the reasons for the great importance of New 
Orleans. (45) Why has it abetter location than Mobile or Charleston ? (46) Com- 
pare it in size with those cities. (47) With New York, Boston, and Baltimore. 
(48) What large tributary enters the Mississippi in Louisiana ? (49) What crops 
are raised in Louisiana ? Why there ? (50) Tell how the delta is caused to 
grow. 

Arkansas (Ark.). — (51) What large river enters the Mississippi in this state? 
(52) There is much forest in Arkansas. In what part" should you expect to 
find most of it? (53) Is Arkansas in the cotton belt? (See Fig. 213.) (54) The 
capital is the largest city. Compare it in size with Memphis. Why is it less 
favorably situated than that city? (55) Compare it with New Orleans. 

Texas (Tex.). — (56) Whei'e are the mountains? (57) Are there forests on 
the western plains? Why? (58) What are the industries there? (59) What 
city in the western part? Why there? (60) What are the industries in eastern 
Texas? (61) What cities ai'e mentioned in the text as being in eastern Texas? 
(62) For what is Galveston noted ? (63) Compare it in size with New Orleans, 
Charleston, and Boston. (64) How many times larger than Rhode Island is Texas? 
(For area, see table in Appendix, p. iii.) Than Pennsylvania? (65) Add together 
the areas of all the New England and Middle Atlantic States, and compare the 
total with the area of Texas. (66) Compare the population of Texas with that of 
Massachusetts (see Appendix, p. iii). Compare it with that of New York City (see 
Appendix, p. vi). 

Indian Territory (I.T.). — (67) What disadvantages do you see in the fact 
that this region is owned by the Indians? 

Oklahoma (Ok.). — (68) What about the climate of the western part? 
(69) What crops are raised in the eastern part? (70) Into what river does the 
territory drain ? (71) Name and locate the two cities. 

General. — (72) Which is the smallest state? (73) Compare it with Penn- 
sylvania and Massachusetts. (74) State the principal industries of the South. 

(75) Of what advantage is it that they are so different from those of the North ? 

(76) Add together the populations of the ten largest cities, and compare the result 



102 NOBTH AMEBIC A 

with the total for the ten largest in the New England States (see table, Appendix, 
pp. iv-vii). 

SuGGESTioxs. — (1) Examine a floor made of Georgia pine. (2) Show sev- 
eral ways in which New England and the Southern States are dependent on each 
other, (3) What would be the effect on the cotton manufacturing of England if 
the United States engaged in war wdth that country? (4) Find what the effect 
was at the time of the Civil War. (5) Near what places w^ere some of the great 
battles of the war fought ? (6) What other inventions may well be compared with 
that of the cotton gin in importance ? (7) Try raising some rice in the school- 
room. (8) Raise some tobacco, cotton, and sugar-cane. (9) About how much 
sugar does your family use each year? (10) Find out w^hy the cultivation of 
I'ice is unhealthful w^ork. (11) Find out something about Indian Reservations 
and the methods employed by the United States to improve the condition of the 
Indians. (12) What reasons can you give for expecting the cotton mills in New 
England to prove less profitable, now that the South is developing such mills? 
(13) Find out how much farther it is from New Orleans to London than from 
New York. AVhat effect should you think its greater distance from Europe would 
have on the growth of New Orleans? (14) Through what waters would a boat go 
from New Orleans to Kansas City? To Pittsburg? To Chicago? To San Fran- 
cisco ? 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 



1 

o 

a 

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p- 
i 

5 

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Fig. 104. 

Map Questions.— (1) Name the large rivers of this group. Draw a sketch map sho 
ing them. (2) Draw a sketch map of the five Great Lakes. (3) Locate upon each of tho 
sketches the cities printed in large type (those over two hundred thousand inhabitants (s 
Appendix, p. iv) . (4) Are any of the very large cities not situated on rivers or lakes ? Wh; 
(5) What advantages liave these cities from their location? (fi) Examine Figure 9 to s 




West 89° from' Greeuwich 



how far tlie glacier advanced in these states. Do you find any lakes south of that line? 
(7) What influence must the Great Lakes have upon the summer climate of places near 
them? Upon the winter climate? (8) Why is the interior colder in winter and warmer 
in summer than the coast? (9) State some ways in which the Great Lakes must have 
influenced the development of the West. 




Fig. 105. 
Map showing the location of Chicago and Milwaukee. 



VIII CENTRAL STATES 

Physiography and Climate. — A biindred years ago, when a con- 
siderable number of pioneers pushed across the Appalachian Moun- 
tains into Ohio and Kentucky, they were gladdened by the sight of 
immense tracts of level land. For hundreds of miles the plains slope 
gently toward the Mississippi ; and then, beyond that river, they 
slowly rise again for hundreds of miles to the very base of the Rocky 
Mountains. In a few places, as in western South Dakota and south- 
ern Missouri, low mountains rise above the plains ; but most of the 
country is a vast level tract, quite unlike the hilly and mountainous 
region farther east. What are the names of the mountains of the 
Central States? (Fig. 10-1.) 

Not only did the settlers find the land level, but most of it was 
free from forests and boulders. In many portions of New England 
weeks of hard labor were required to remove the trees from a single 
acre, and many days to drag away or bury the boulders. On the 
broad plains, however, such labor was unnecessary, for there were 
hundreds of thousands of square miles covered only with grass. 
These treeless plains became known as the prairies (p. 20). 

While boulders are abundant in some places, the glacier has in 
most sections left a deep, rich soil, free from stones. The reason for 
this is, that here the glacier found softer rocks to grind up into soil 
than in New England, and was therefore more easily able to reduce 
them to small fragments. In many sections, as in parts of Illinois, 
Indiana, and Ohio, the glacial drift is one or two hundred feet deep. 
It is the deposit of this drift which has caused the thousands of lakes 
in Minnesota and other states. 

The summers are too short for cotton, but they are long and hot 
enough for numerous other crops. The rainfall is also sufficient for 
crops, except in the extreme western part, which is arid, like western 
Texas (p. 85). 

Settlement of the Mississippi Valley. — The conditions seemed 
favorable for agriculture ; and, in spite of danger from Indians, the 
settlers poured across the gaps in the mountains, folloAving the Great 
Lakes or the Ohio River and its tributaries. At first only a few ven- 

103 



104 NORTH AMERICA 

tured in, travelling until they reached a spot which suited their fancy. 
There they built rude log huts, and settled down to a solitary exist- 
ence, one family being perhaps miles away from its nearest neighbor. 
As more persons came and wished to proceed farther westward, 
they built flatboats to navigate the rivers, and they settled in groups 
along the river banks, forming villages which soon grew into towns 
and cities. Their life was of the simplest kind, each family depend- 
ing largely upon itself for whatever it needed (First Book, p. 82). 
Some articles had to be purchased; for though the rich soil produced 
abundant crops, the pioneers still needed sugar, cotton cloth, tools, 
and medicines. Since almost all this region drained into the Missis- 
sippi, the most accessible place where such supplies could be obtained 
was New Orleans. Consequently the products of the farm were 
floated on flatboats to that point, and there sold or exchanged for the 
articles desired. 

A great improvement was made when steam came into use. The first 
steamboat on these Western rivers was the New Orleans, which started out 
from Pittsburg in 1811. "As it ran down the Ohio, making extraordinary 
speed in comparison with anything before known, the quiet denizens of the 
forests along the river banks were amazed and frightened by the strange 
apparition. Not a few of the more ignorant folk thought the Day of Judg- 
ment was at hand, as they watched the showers of sparks and heard the 
rush of the wheels. And when the craft stopped at Louisville, well along 
in the night, and let off steam, the roar from the escape-pipes brought a good 
share of the town tumbling out of their beds to see what was the matter." ^ 

Canals, similar to the Erie Canal in New York (p. 72), were also 
made, and the benefits of another invention began to be felt soon 
after the j^ear 1827. In that year the first railway was built in the 
United States ; and, as years passed, railway lines were so extended 
that even those regions that were at a distance from the rivers could 
be reached easily and quickly. 

These several improvements in the manner of travelling and 
carrying freight have exerted an immense influence upon the rapid- 
ity with which the Mississippi Valley has been settled. While 150 
years had been consumed in pushing the settlements westward to 
Ohio and Kentucky, it required less than one-quarter of that time to 
extend them twice that distance farther west. Now, in spite of the 
great cities along the Atlantic coast, more people are living west of 
Cincinnati than east of it (Figs. 207 and 208), and the greater part 
1 "The United States of America," by N. S. Shaler, Vol. I, p. 296. 



CENTRAL STATES 105 

of these are in the Mississippi Valley. Altogether, including the 
Southern States, that valley now supports a population* of about 
30,000,000. Large numbers of the settlers have come from Europe, 
especially from Germany, Scandinavia, and Ireland. 

Ageiculture 

Millions of persons in Europe and in our coast cities look to this 
valley for their bread, meat, and other food, as they look to the South 
for cotton. 

A Farm in Central Ohio. — All the way from eastern Ohio to cen- 
tral Nebraska, agriculture is a very important industry. The farms 
vary greatly in size, from a few acres to several thousand, but they 
usually contain from 80 to 160 acres. In the main, they resemble 
the one in Ohio that is described below. 

This Ohio farm of 160 acres has a house upon it in which the 
family lives, with a barn near by for horses, milch cows, and hay, 
and with a few sheds around it for grain and farming implements. 

A windmill in the rear keeps the milk house well supplied with 
cold water, and also fills the water troughs in the barnyard. On one 
side is an orchard having apple, peach, and pear trees, with a few 
rows of berry bushes in one part, and a chicken house in another, 
Avhere enough chickens are raised to supply some meat, and all the 
eggs that are needed, with perhaps some to sell. On one side of 
the front yard are a few beehives, and back of them, between the 
orchard and the barn, is a garden for vegetables. Still back of that 
are several pig-pens, in which hogs are fattened for home use and 
also for the market. 

Farther away from the house are fields in which there are at 
least three or four different kinds of crops. Every farmer in that 
vicinity expects to grow corn, perhaps sixty acres of it, some grass 
for grazing and for hay, and wheat or some other kind of grain. 
After these crops are harvested, they are either sold, or fed to stock 
— horses, cattle, hogs, or sheep — upon the farm. The latter plan 
is often followed, chiefly because it pays better to fatten stock and 
sell it than to sell the crops themselves. There are generally two or 
three good milch cows on hand, which not only supply the family 
with fresh milk and butter, but furnish some cream or butter to sell. 

Since there are only three other houses in sight of this farmhouse, 
and there is no store or post-office nearer than two and a half miles, 




Fig. 106. 
Scenes on a farm in Ohio. Tell what you see in each picture. 



106 



CENTS AL STATUS 



107 



the farmer and his family may not converse with other persons 
for several days at a time, although they often see acquaintances 
driving by. In the busier season, from spring till fall, they make 




Fig. 107. 
Thresliing wheat on a farm in Ohio. 

few trips to town, and then mainly for groceries or mail, or to church 
on Sundaj^ ; but at other times of the year they have leisure for 
reading, visiting, and other pleasures. 

Some persons would not care for such a life because it is too 
lonesome, and there is too much hard work connected with it. But 
this farmer enjoys it greatly, because he likes to take care of his 
stock, to work in the soil, and to watch the crops grow. In addition 
to this, he is able to raise most of his own food, and his whole life is 
more independent than that of persons in a village or city. From 
such farms have come some of our ablest and best-educated men. 
Can you name two Presidents who spent their childhood on farms 
of the Central States? Where were their homes? What can you 
tell about their early life ? 

Fruits. — While each farm -usually has a small orchard, like the one 
mentioned above, fruit raising is a special industry in those parts where 




Fig. 108. 
A fruit orchard in Kansas. 



climate and soil are favorable, as in the neighborhood of the Great Lakes. 
The immense area of water renders the summers cooler and the winters 
warmer than they would otherwise be. Accordingly, we find the Chau- 
tauqua grape belt (p. 63) extending from New York a long distance into 



108 



NORTH AMERICA 



Ohio ; and quantities of such fruit as peaches and apples are produced on 
the peninsula of Michigan. With what part of the Atlantic coast can this 
fruit region be best compared ? (p. 64.) 

Tobacco. — Tobacco is another product of importance in these states 
(Fig. 216). We have seen that its cultivation was one of the industries 
in Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee (pp. 63 and 87). West of 
these states there are also sections, in both Kentucky and Missouri, where 
the soil and climate are favorable to tobacco raising. Both Louisville 
and St. Louis are important tobacco markets. What other cities have 
the same industry? (pp. 63 and 87.) 

Fine Stock in Kentucky. — Kentucky is famous for its blue grass 
in the neighborhood of Lexington, and for its fine stock, especially 
horses and mules. The reason why this grass is so nourishing is that 
the Kentucky soil in this section is composed of bits of decayed lime- 
stone in which is found an abundance of lime phosphate, an excellent 
plalit food (p. 93). This phosphate is supplied from the shells of 
small sea animals which were buried in the sea bottom millions of 
years ago. As the limestone decays, the phosphate mixes with other 
rock bits and thus fertilizes the soil. 

Caverns. — The abundance of limestone in Kentucky is the reason for 
the numerous caves that exist there. Limestone, although hard, is more 
easily dissolved by water than other rocks ; and as the rain water 

seeps into the earth and enters the 
limestone along the joints, it slowly 
dissolves the rock away. In this 
manner many a long tunnel has 
been made, the largest that is 
known being the Mammoth Cave 
in Kentucky. 

Not all parts of Mammoth 
Cave are yet known, but it is said 
that there are more than 150 miles 
of galleries. They are found to 
wind about irregularly, some being 
many feet below others, and> alto- 
gether forming a network, or laby- 
rinth, into which one dares not 
venture without a guide. The 
entire cavern is as dark as any 
mine, and the only sound to be 
heard is that of trickling water. 




Fig. 109. 

A view iu one of the Kentucky caverns, shovs^ing 
the icicle-like stalactites, vfhich are made of 
limy matter deposited by the water which 
slowly trickles from the cave roof. 



Corn. — Corn raising is one of the most important industries of 
the Central States (Fig. 209, p. 196). A farmer usually expects to 



CENTRAL STATES 



109 



devote from one-third to one-half of his land to it ; therefore, in 
travelling across these states in summer, one sees corn-fields in every 
direction (Fig. 110). 




Fig. 110. 
A field in Kansas entirely given over to corn. 



The seed is planted in rows in the spring time. Soon the little stalk 
appears above ground, growing rapidly during the hot summer months, 
until a height of seven to ten feet is reached. In order to keep the soil 
soft and kill the weeds, the ground between the rows is ploughed when 
the corn is young ; but as it grows higher, the shade of its own leaves 
protects it both from drought and weeds. 

A field usually presents the most beautiful appearance in Jidy, when 
the corn " tassels out." The leaves then entirely hide the ground from 
view for hundreds of acres, and the rich green stalks, with their long, 
slender leaves, bend to the breezes 
in the most graceful manner. If 
the stalk is to be used as fodder 
for cattle in winter, it is cut before 
frost, when the kernels on the cob 
are still somewhat soft and milky, 
although much harder than the 
green corn which we eat. If left 
until after frost, the grain hardens, 
and then the harvest season begins. 
Men drive into the fields in wagons, 
and tear the husks from the ear, 
spending day after day at that kind 
of work. 

Corn is put to many uses. 
Much that is raised is fed to 
cattle and hogs, as already 
stated. Some is made into 
hominy and breakfast foods, or into corn meal for mush and corn 
bread. Starch is another product ; but one of the most extensive 




Fig. 111. 

Two ears of corn, one with the husk stripped 
down to show the kernels. 



110 NORTH AMERICA 

uses of the grain is in the manufacture of whiskey in a distillery. 
There are many distilleries in St. Louis, Louisville, and other 
cities within the corn belt. Peokia, in central Illinois, is another 
great centre for the manufacture of whiskey and other materials 
from corn. Much corn is shipped eastAvard to the seaboard and 
beyond, and all the cities along the way make profit from handling it. 

Wheat. — This grain, like corn, is produced in all the Central 
States as well as in other parts of the country (Fig. 211, p. 197). 
It is an especially important product in Kansas, Ohio, and Indiana ; 
but the section which at present is most noted for wheat is the 
valley of the Red River of the North. In this valley is a strip of 
land, including western Minnesota, eastern Dakota, and a portion of 
Manitoba, which is one of the finest wheat regions in the world. 

One of the reasons for its fertility dates back to the time when 
the glacier was melting away from this region. The ice then 
stretched across the Red River valley, and forced that river to seek 
an outlet southward. A broad lake was thus formed, with an ice 
dam on the north, and in the water of this lake the sediment was de- 
posited which forms much of the soil of the wheat region. When 
the ice melted entirely away from the valley, the Red River was 
once more able to flow northward, and then the lake disappeared. 

The land there is almost as level as the surface of the sea ; 
it is so level, in fact, that after a rain the water stands in shallow 
sheets in the fields. It is necessary to elevate the roads a foot or 
more above the surrounding land, with ditches on either side. In 
every direction there is nothing to break the view except a farm- 
house every half mile or so, with a few trees around it. Over these 
open plains the wind sweeps with terrific force, somewhat as upon 
the ocean, and fierce, blinding snow squalls, or blizzards^ are not 
uncommon. 

Upon these plains one may ride northward on the train toward Winne- 
peg all day long, and see scarcely a single crop besides wheat. M^st of 
the farms are of moderate size, but some are enormous. For example, the 
Dalrymple farm, at Casselton, North Dakota, contains fifteen thousand 
acres. How many square miles is that ? 

This farm is divided into six parts, with farm buildings upon each. 
To prepare the ground, from fifteen to twenty men at a time plough and 
sow the seed on each division. One takes the lead, the next follows close 
behind, then comes the third, fourth, and so on. The grain is harvested 
on a similar plan (Fig. 112). One hundred and twenty men and three 
hundred horses are employed in the planting season, and three hundred 



CENTBAL STATES 



111 



men during the harvest. As one acre usually produces from fifteen to 
twenty bushels, an immense amount of grain is obtained from this one 
farm. 

The great quantity of wheat produced in the Red River valley of 
the North and the neighboring region has helped in the growth of 
the cities of Minneapolis, St. Paul, and Duluth. It has also 
influenced the growth of scores of other cities along the Great Lakes, 
the Mississippi River, and even on the Atlantic coast. Some of the 
largest of these are St. Louis, Milwaukee, Chicago, New York, 
and Baltimore. Can you suggest reasons for this ? 




Fig. 112. 
Harvesting wheat in the Red River valley. 



Other Grains. — Besides corn and wheat, two other grains are raised in 
great quantities in these states ; namely, oats and barley. The former is a 
common food for horses, but the latter is largely used in the manufacture 
of beer. The great breweries, to be seen in every large city, consume 
immense quantities of barley in order to obtain the malt which is needed 
in making beer. In Cincinnati and St. Louis, and in many other places, 
beer making is one of the important industries. Milwaukee is also noted 
for beer, much as Peoria is for distilled spirits. 

Cattle Ranching. — After passing westward from the fertile Red 
River valley of the North, one finds the farm-houses diminishing in 
number, and the country becoming more and more arid, until, beyond 
the 100th meridian, there is practically ho farming without irrigation. 
At the same time one gradually rises higher and higher, until, near 
the base of the mountains, he has reached an elevation of fully a 
mile above the sea. This dry plateau, extending from Canada to 
southwestern Texas (p. 84), is commonly known as the G-reat 
Plains. 

The entire semi-arid western third of the western tier of states — 
from Texas to North Dakota — is therefore devoted chiefly to ranch- 




Fig. 113. 

Scenes in the ranch counti-y. Upper i:)icture, a typical ranch house on the banks of a stream 
in western North Dakota. Middle picture, a ranch house and "the range." Lower 
picture, a group of cowboys at the ranch house. 



112 



CENTRAL STATES 



113 



ing. Following is a desci'iption of ranch life in western North 
Dakota, which much resembles such life in other states : — 

There is little water anywhere else than in the widely separated streams ; 
and there are almost no trees except upon their banks. As the ranchman 
must have both water and timber, he locates his house (Fig. 113), with its 
few stockades or corrals, and sheds, within easy reach of tliese necessities. 
If there is no neighbor within several miles, it is all the better, for his 
cattle are then more certain of abundant grass. 




Fig. 114. 
A scene duriug a round-up, when great numbers of cattle are bunched together. 



Few fences are built, partly because it is necessary for the cattle to 
roam about at will in their search for food. The bunch grass, upon which 
they feed, is so scattered that they must walk a long distance each day 
to find enough to eat. A single ranchman may own from ten to twenty 
thousand liead, and yet they are all allowed to wander about upon public 
land, called " the range." Usually they keep within a distance of thirty 
miles of the ranch house ; but sometimes they stray one or two hundred 
miles away. 

Twice a year there is a general collection, or round-up (Fig. Ill), of 
cattle, — the first round-up occur- 
ring in May or June, and the other 
early in the fall. One object of 
the first is to find the calves that 
have been born during the winter. 

Since there are few fences, 
cattle belonging to ranches which 
are even a hundred miles apart 
become mixed during the winter, 
and those in a large herd may be- 
long to a score of different ranch- 
men. Each cattleman has a cer- 
tain mark, or brand (Fig. 115), 
such as a letter, a cross, a horseshoe, or some other device, which must 
be burnt into the side of every cow ; and that is the sole mark of ownership. 




Fig. 115. 
Picture showing the mother with her brand, a calf 
following her, and a cowboy about to catch the 
calf and brand it. 



114 



NORTH AMERICA 



A roiind-up, which lasts several weeks, is planned by a number of 
ranchmen together. A sqnad of perhaps twenty cowboys, accompanied 
by a wagon and provisions, a large number of riding horses, or '' ponies," 
and a cook, go in one direction, and other wagons with similar outfits 
set out in other directions. Before separating in the morning, the 
members of a squad agree upon a certain camping place for the night, 
and then they scour the country to bring the cattle together, riding per- 
haps sixty or eighty miles during the day. Each ranchman knows his 
own cattle by the brand they bear; and since the calves follow their 
mothers (Fig. 115), there is no difficulty in determining what brand 
they shall receive. After branding the calves, each ranchman drives his 
cattle homeward to feed during the summer within a few dozen miles of 
their owner's home. 

The second large round-up is similar to the first, except that its object 
is to bring together the steers, or male cattle, and ship them away to mar- 
ket ; it is accordingly called the beef round-up. A ranchman who owns 
twenty thousand cattle may sell nearly half that number in a season. As 
the steers are collected they are loaded upon trains and shipped to Omaha, 
Kansas City, St. Louis, Chicago, and even farther east. Millions of 
cattle are slaughtered every year in these cities (Fig. 122), and the meat 
is sent to England and Germany, as well as to all parts of the United 
States. 

Very often the cattle find so little water, and such poor pasturage, that 
they fail to fatten properly, and must be fed for a time. This may be 

done upon the irrigated fields near the 
rivers in the ranch country, or on the 
farms farther east, as in Kansas, Iowa, 
and Nebraska, and even in Illinois, In- 
diana, and Ohio. Thus we see how a 
great product of one section of the 
United States is made to furnish em- 
ployment and food for millions of per- 
sons far away. 

The lives of ranchmen and cowboys 
are exciting and interesting, most of 
each day being spent in the saddle 
(Fig. 116). They are so far separated 
from other people that they must take 
care of themselves in a surprising num- 
ber of ways. For instance, a ranchman 
must build his own house, kill his own 
beef and dress it, put up his own ice, 
raise his own vegetables, do his own 
blacksmithing, find his own fuel, and even keep school for his children, 
if the latter receive an education. He affords a good example of the 
pioneer life in early days. 




A cowboy with his rope, or lariat, with 
which he captures the steers by throw- 
ing a noose over their necks, or around 
their legs. 



CENTRAL STATES 



115 



Lumbering. — Although so much of the land is under cultivation, 
or given over to ranching, forests are found in many sections. When 
the region was first visited, most of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Mich- 




FiG. 117. 
Floating timber on a stream in M^isconsin. 

igan was tree-covered, as well as much of Ohio, southern Indiana, 
and Illinois, and the Black Hills of western Dakota. Even now 
some forest is left, although there has been so much lumbering that 
large areas have been entirely cleared. 

In Wisconsin, for instance, in travelling northward from the well- 
cultivated southern portion, one comes to a section where farmers are 
just taking the place of lumbermen. Many log huts stand there in 
small clearings, with the green fields still dotted by tree stumps ; but 




Fig. lis. 
A sawmill in Wisconsin. 



beyond, little else than woods can be seen. In these forests are many 
different kinds of northern trees, especially the evergreens, such as 
hemlock, spruce, white pine, and cedar, and scattered hard woods, 
such as oak, birch, and maple. 



116 NOBTH AMERICA 

In the neighborhood of the Great Lakes lumbering is actively 
carried on, and in much the same manner as in Maine (Fig. 117), 
although a great deal of the timber is brought to the sawmills 
by wagons or rail, instead of being floated a long distance down 
stream. The excellent water power in the Mississippi River at 
Minneapolis early attracted large sawmills there and made that 
city famous for lumber (Fig. 127, p. 126). Other mills are situ- 
ated farther down the Mississippi, as at Winona. They are also 
numerous at Duluth, and at Superior just across the state line in 
Wisconsin. 

Near the forest regions, along the streams and on the shores of 
the Great Lakes, the manufacture of furniture and other articles of 
wood is an important industry. Chicago is especially noted for its 
manufacture of furniture ; and on many of the small streams of Min- 
nesota, Wisconsin (Fig. 118), and Michigan, where there is water 
power, there are sawmills, furniture factories, and planing-mills. 
Some of these are at La Crosse and Oshkoshl in Wisconsin, and 
Saginaw, Bay City, and Grand Rapids in Michigan. Many 
school desks are made at the last place. 

Mineral Products 

Building Stone. — It has been stated (pp. 2 and 5) that the ocean once 
covered much of this section, and that layers of sediment deposited under 
the water have hardened into rock strata, which have been raised to form 
the dry land. During their uplifting they were not folded and broken, as 
mountain rocks are, but the layers were left in a horizontal position, as 
when first laid down in the ocean. The streams, cutting their valleys 
downward through the soil, have brought many of these rock strata to 
light, and among them are beds of limestone and sandstone which are of 
value as building stones. 

Ohio and Indiana are especially noted for their limestone and sand- 
stone, which are shipped in all directions for building purposes. There 
are also slates and granites in the hilly and mountainous sections, as there 
are in hilly and mountainous New England (p. 45). 

Petroleum and Natural Gas. — Power for manufacturing is also 
abundantly provided in this region. When oil and natural gas were 
first discovered in New York and Pennsylvania, it was supposed that 
they did not exist elsewhere ; but great quantities of both these sub- 
stances are now obtained in Ohio, Indiana, West Virginia, Texas, 
and other states. Many farmers, whose land is capable of producing 



CENTRAL STATES 



117 



only the usual crops, have suddenly found themselves rich by the 
discover}^ of oil or gas in the rocks far beneath the soil. In fact, 
these materials are so abundant in some places, that towns have 
sprung up like mushrooms, — as Findlay in western Ohio. The 
way in which gas and oil are formed, and the uses to which they are 
put, have already been described (p. 67). 

Coal. — This mineral fuel is much more widespread in the Cen- 
tral States than oil and gas. In some places the beds lie near the 
surface, like rock in quarries, and then coal mining is very simple ; 
in others it is buried so deep that long shafts must be sunk to reach 
it. Being so valuable a fuel for houses and manufactories, the coal 
is mined in many places. 

While Pennsylvania produces two kinds of coal, anthracite and 
bituminous, the Central States have only the latter variety. It is 
bituminous coal that is used in making coke ; and because there is 
so much of this kind of coal, many of the cities of these states are 
engaged in iron manufacturing. Soft coal produces more smoke 
than the hard anthracite, and those cities which burn great quantities 
of it are very sooty in consequence. . 

Iron Ore. — Formerly Pennsylvania was the chief iron-producing 
state, having both coal and iron ore ; but in recent years explorers 
in the forest wilderness 
northwest of Lake Michi- 
gan, and near the western 
end of Lake Superior, have 
discovered what seem to be 
inexhaustible beds of iron 
ore. In some places the 
ore is so soft that, like 
clay, it can be dug out by 
steam shovels, and so near 
the surface that the mines 
are open pits (Fig. 119). That is the case, for example, at Ishpem- 
ING, in northern Michigan. 

This Lake Superior district is now the leading iron-producing 
centre in the world. The main difficulty, however, is the fact that 
there is no coal in that region. Consequently, in order that the ore 
may be reduced to the metal, either coal must be transported thither, 
or the ore must be carried to the coal regions. The latter process 
has proved the cheaper. 




Fig. 119. 
An open iron mine in the Lake Superior district. 



118 NOBTH AMERICA 

Fortunately the ore deposits are located near waterways. If it were 
necessary to carry the iron ore a long distance hj rail, the expense might 
be so great as seriously to check its production. As it is, however, the ore 
is mined, loaded upon cars, and sent over short lines of railway to the lake 
shore. Great ore docks (Fig. 120), or piers, reaching far out into deep 
water, have been constructed to hold the ore. Railway tracks are built 
upon the docks, and whole trains run out and speedily dump their con- 
tents into bins. On a single pier there are scores of loins, which together 
hold enough ore to fill several large vessels. When a vessel is to be 
loaded, it is moored to the pier and a door at the bottom of a bin is 
opened, allowing hundreds of tons of ore to slide out; then the next 
bin is emptied, and in this way the vessel is filled in a few hours. 




Fig. 120. 
Iron ore piers at Ashland, Wis. Note the boats loading with ore. 

Boats with such a cargo set out from the lake ports of DuLUTH, 
Superior, Ashland, and Marquette for manufacturing centres 
all along the lakes. As the ore must reach a point where coal is 
easily obtained, it is taken to Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, 
Buffalo, etc. Notice how close to these cities the coal beds 
extend (Fig. 220). 

The Lake Superior iron district is in three states, — Michigan, 
Wisconsin, and Minnesota, the most important being Michigan 
(Fig. 222), and the least important Wisconsin. These three states 
together produce seventeen times as much ore as Pennsylvania. 
The sudden development of mining in this region has brought so 
many people that numerous towns and cities have grown up ; but 
the lack of coal has prevented much iron manufacturing. 

Copper. — Another very important metal found in the Central 
States is copper. This occurs in the pores of a lava rock and 
between the grains of a pebble beach which, though now hardened 
into rock, was formed in the ancient sea. Indians and the early 
explorers found fragments of copper on the surface, and mines were 



CENTRAL STATES 119 

later opened in the lava and beach rocks of the small peninsula 
marked Mineral Range on the map (Fig. 104). 

Some of these mines are very deep, one of the shafts reaching to a 
depth of about a mile. When the ore is drawn to the surface, it is found 
mixed with so much beach rock and lava, that it must be crushed to a 
powder under powerful hammers, or stamps ; then water is run over it in 
order to carry away the bits of rock and leave the heavier particles of 
copper. Even after this, some foreign substances are still mixed with the 
copper. Since the purposes for which this metal is used demand that it 
be very pure, it must next be placed in a large smelter to be melted and 
thus separated from the impurities. Among the latter is a little silver, 
which is saved. The pure copper is allowed to run out of the furnace 
and cool in bars to be shipped away. 

The largest mines in this region are near together, and so many men 
are required to obtain the ore, and change it to pure metal, that towns of 
large size have grown up in a wilderness which otherwise could scarcely 
have attracted many people. Within a few miles of two or three of the 
most important mines are a number of towns having a total population of 
fifty thousand, the largest being Calumet. Many of these persons are 
miners and families of miners ; but there must, of coiu'se, be storekeepers, 
physicians, teachers, ministers, etc., and they all depend for a living upon 
the precious copper buried far beneath the surface. 

Copper is valuable in many ways. It is one of the metals used 
to make bronze, and also brass ; but of late years the wide introduc- 
tion of electricity has created a new and even greater demand for this 
metal. Since copper is a substance which allows electricity to pass 
through it more easily than other common metals, it is the best 
material for trolley wires, the wire of long distance telephones, 
electric bells in houses, etc. In every city in the land much copper 
is used. 

As in the case of iron ore, the metal is shipped to points along 
the lakes," and elsewhere, by water and by rail, much of it going to 
the metal manufactories in the New England cities (p. 53). Name 
some goods that must be shipped into this section instead of away 
from it. 

Lead, Zinc, etc. — Lead and zinc, two other metals found in the Central 
States, occur together in pockets and little veins, in layers of limestone. 
The ores are mined in many places, as at Joplin, Missouri, and then sent 
to the proper kind of furnaces where the pure metals are extracted. 

A large part of our supply of lead and zinc is obtained from Missouri, 
Kansas, Wisconsin, and Iowa, the first-named state producing more zinc 



120 NOBTH AMERICA 

than any other in the Union. For what purposes are lead and zinc used? 
Of what use should you think this lead was to the early pioneers ? 

Besides these metals, gold is mined in considerable quantities in the 
Black Hills in the extreme western part of Dakota. 

Much salt is also obtained in the Central States, especially in Michi- 
gan and Kansas. 

Clays. — The deep soil left in the prairie states by the glacier is often 
a clay which is useful in the manufacture of bricks ; and, as in other 
sections of the country (p. 71), there are many brickyards, especially 
near the large cities. From this same kind of clay, other articles, such as 
flower-pots and drain-pipes, are manufactured. During recent years, 
when drainage of farm land has become so common, the manufacture of 
tile for that purpose has developed into a great industry, many a small 
town having a tile factory. These objects are made in much the same 
manner as brick (p. 71), except that the clay is pressed into other 
forms. 

There are a number of places where fine pottery also is made. For 
instance, a very high grade, known as Rook wood ware, is manufactured 
in CiNCiisrisrATi. The best of clay is needed for this, and some of it must 
be brought from a distance. The first step in making a vase is to wet a 
himp of clay so that it may easily be moulded. Then it is shaped upon a 
rapidly revolving wheel, known as the potter's wheel (Fig. 71), which has 
been in use for centuries. There it is whirled rapidly round while a man 
moulds it with his hands, in a very few minutes changing a shapeless 
lump into a delicately formed vase. It must then be baked. After the 
baking, flowers or other ornaments may be painted upon it. The surface 
is finally covered with a substance which, when baked, produces a glaze. 
One of the beauties of the Eookwood ware is the peculiar color of the 
glaze, which is a dark brown or yellowish brown. 

Principal Cities and Shipping Routes 

It is evident that the raw products of the farms, ranches, forests, 
and mines in the Central States must lead to much commerce ; and 
that, since coal is included among the raw products, manufacturing 
must also be developed. This means, of course, that there must be 
many large cities ; and since the Central States have no ocean coast, 
we naturally find them along the Great Lakes and the three great 
rivers, — the Mississippi, Ohio, and Missouri, — where it is possible to 
ship goods by water. Let us first consider those along the Great 
Lakes. 

THE LAKE CITIES 

Duluth and Superior. — At the western end of Lake Superior there 
is a fine, large harbor, one side being in Minnesota, the other in Wis- 



CENTRAL STATES 121 

consin. Upon this harbor are two cities, Duluth and Superior, 
which together have a population of little less than one hundred 
thousand. The chief products of this vicinity are iron, lumber, and 
wheat, which are shipped eastward in immense quantities from these 
two ports. Owing to the neighborhood of the Minnesota and 
Dakota wheat fields, there are enormous elevators at Duluth for 
storing grain, and Hour-mills for grinding it up. The iron ore 
docks, sawmills, and lumber wharves are also busy places. 

Goods are shipped to this point as well as away from it ; for while the 
people in this section have some materials to spare, they also need many 
others, as farming implements, clothing, various kinds of food, fmmiture, 
and coal. These goods are brought cheaply, because the vessels carrying 
ore, wheat, and lumber eastward must have something to bring back. As 
already suggested (p. 70), it is the needs and products of the inhabitants 
of this distant region which help to make Buffalo, Montreal, and New 




Fig. 121. 
Lake vessels, the one in front being called a whaleback. 

York so important, and to keep the mills and factories of New England 
so busy. Explain how this is true. 

At the outlet of Lake Superior into Lake Hxnon, there are rapids which 
interfere with navigation ; and to avoid these a ship canal, called the Sault 
Ste. Marie, or " Soo," canal, has been dug. On its banks is a city of the 
same name. 

Chicago. — While Lake Superior extends far into the Central 
States in one direction, Lake Michigan reaches a long way in 
another ; and near its southern extremity, in Illinois, the great city 
of Chicago is located. At this point the small Chicago River 
empties into the lake (Fig. 105), forming a small harbor, and in 
early times a fort was located there. The harbor itself was formed 
thousands of years ago while the great glacier was melting away. 
At that time, the ice sheet lay across Lake Michigan, forming a huge 



122 



NORTH AMERICA 



dam which prevented the waters from flowing into Lake Huron and 
the St. Lawrence River. Tliis compelled the water to find an outlet 
southward, past the present site of Chicago, and into the Illinois 
River and the Mississippi. It was the wash of this water which 
dug out the small harbor. 

As the West developed, this site proved to be a most advanta- 
geous one ; for whenever a railway was built from the East to the 
Northwest, from any place north of Washington, it was necessary 
for it to pass around the southern end of Lake Michigan. Of course, 
as tlie city grew in size, other railways were built to it because it was 
large ; and now they approach it from the East, West, North, and 
South (Fig. 105). 

Chicago is the nearest lake port to the most productive grain 
region in the world, and it is therefore an important shipping point 
for grain. It is also within easy reach of the coal fields, while 
lumber and iron ore are readily brought to it by boat. These facts 
have caused Chicago to grow with wonderful rapidity, so that it has 
long since outgrown its small natural harbor, which has been 
enlarged by extensive breakwaters (Fig. 105). In the j^ear 1840, 
there were but 4,470 inhabitants ; in 1870, 300,000 ; and now 1,698,- 
575. To-day Chicago is the second city in size in the New World. 

Stock Yards of Chicago. — Chicago is not only a great grain 
market, but also the most important meat market in the world. All 

the grazing states of the West 



ship stock to this point, and 
in the city itself nearly a 
square mile is taken up by 
the Union Stock Yards, con- 
sisting of large sheds, pens 
with high fences, and troughs 
for food and water (Fig. 122). 
Train loads of cattle, hogs, 
and sheep are unloaded there 
every day. The work em- 
ploys about thirty thousand 
men, which indicates how ex- 
tensive it is. 

The products of the packing houses are several. By far the 
most important is meat ; and so well developed is the industry that 
most of the cities of the East are furnished with fresh meat from 




1 



Fig. 122. 
The Chicago stock yards. 



CENTRAL STATES 123 

the Western cities. It may be several weeks after the meat is pre- 
pared for food before it reaches the table ; yet all this time it is kept 
fresh by the use of ice. Special refrigerator cars are constructed 
for the purpose of carrying it. 

Besides what is sold fresh, a great deal is canned. The fat of 
the hog is made into lard, and not a little beef fat is converted into 
imitation butter, such as oleomargarine. From the bones, also, 
valuable products are obtained. Many of the bones are burned and 
used in the manufacture of sugar (p. 91) ; and the horns and hoofs 
are of use in making gelatine and glue. 

The hides are made into shoes, gloves, harness, and other goods. 
From the Western packing houses the great shoe factories of Lynn, 
Haverhill, and Brockton, in Massachusetts, as well as those in other 
parts of the country, are supplied with much of their leather. The 
hides, however, must first be sent to tanneries. One of the prin- 
cipal places for tanneries is Mil- 
waukee, which is supplied with 
tannic acid from the bark of the 
hemlock tree that grows in the 
forests of Wisconsin. Nothing is ,. -_™^..^.-.,^ .. 

wasted in the packing business; ^•T;::--^;^'^*!^^^^*!!!!;?!;^ 
even the bristles of the hog are J//^ i 

saved to make brushes ; and the 




hair removed from the hides of cat- Fig. vi:i. 

tie is valuable in making plaster. ^ ^^^^ '*'^^^^^" ^* ^^^"^^so. 

Manufacturing in Chicago. — Being near the forest regions, Chicago 
has become a lumber market ; and iron ore is also easily brought by 
boat. Therefore, the opportunities for manufacturing are excellent ; 
for, although there is no natural water power in that vicinity, vast 
coal fields are not far away. ^ 

The Illinois Steel Company alone employs ten thousand men, making 
iron and steel goods of many kinds. An enormous amount of furniture is 
manufactured for all parts of the West, and farming implements as well. 
Each year the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company sends out about 
three hundred thousand machines. The Pullman Car Works manufacture 
more than ten thousand freight cars, besides several hundred Pullman and 
passenger cars. The manufacture of clothing, as in New York (p. 75), is 
also an immense industry. 

Other Facts about Chicago. — The sewage from the city has heretofore 
been emptied into Lake Michigan; but as the drinking water must be 
taken from the lake, it became necessary to dispose of the sewage in some 



124 NOBTH AMERICA 

other way. For tliat purpose an immense drainage canal has recently- 
been completed (Fig. 105), connecting Lake Michigan with the Illinois 
River, and thus setting the current toward the Mississippi and the Gulf 
of Mexico. This drainage canal, which is wide and deep enough for 
vessels, will undoubtedly develop into a ship canal. In that case, large 
boats may reach Chicago from the Gulf of Mexico as they now do from 
the Gulf of St. Lawrence. What effect would this have upon the city ? 

The chief educational institution is the University of Chicago, Avhich, 
although established in 1890, has more students than some of the older 
universities of the East. Mention some of the larger Eastern universities. 

Other Cities along the Lakes. — Other great cities along the lakes 
are engaged in many of the same industries as Chicago, and need 
not be so fully described. Milwaukee (Fig. 105), the largest in 
Wisconsin, deals extensively in grain, lumber, and leather, packs 
much pork, and manufactures a great quantity of flour and machin- 
ery. Its immense breweries have already been mentioned (p. 111). 

Detroit (Fig. 121), the largest city in Michigan, is also on the 
Great Lakes water route. The name is a French word for strait. 
Why suitable here ? All vessels going east or west must pass this 
city; and some of the railway trains from eastern Canada to Chi- 
cago and the West are ferried across the strait at this narrow point. 
Detroit is consequently a shipping and manufacturing centre, deal- 
ing in grain, wool, pork, and ores from the West, and making iron 
and steel goods, such as cars, stoves, etc. 

Not far away, at Ann" Arbor, is the University of Michigan, one of 
the largest educational institutions in the United States. It is supported 
by the state ; in fact, state universities are established in most of the 
Central, Southern, and Western States. 

On the lake shore in Ohio the chief cities are Toledo and 
Cleveland (Fig. 121). The former has extensive flour-mills and 
iron manufactories ; and the latter, which is much the larger, 
and even larger than Cincinnati, Detroit, and Buffalo, has an 
important trade in grain, lumber, and ore. Being near the coal 
and petroleum fields, Cleveland is extensively engaged in manu- 
facturing machinery and furniture, in refining petroleum, and in 
ship-building for the lake commerce. It is one of the busiest and 
most rapidly growing of the lake cities. 

THE RIVER CITIES 

Cities along the Mississippi. — The largest city on the rivers, 
corresponding to Chicago on the lakes, is St. Louis in Missouri 




Fig. 124. 

Map showing the location of Detroit, Cleveland, Cincinnati, and Pittsburg, and their rela- 
tion to the trade routes of the Central and Middle Atlantic States. 







Fig. 125. 
Map showing the location of St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha, Minneapolis, and St. Paul. 



CENTRAL STATES 



125 




(Fig. 125). It has a very favorable position in the centre of the 
productive Mississippi Valley. This, together with the fact that it 
is situated on the Mississippi near the mouth of its two largest 
tributaries, secures for it a large amount of trade both by water 
and by rail. The railway bridges across the Mississippi at this point 
have also had an immense influence on the growth of the city. 

Like Chicago, St. Louis is an important market for grain and live 
stock ; but being so far south, it also trades extensively in Southern 
products, especially cot- 
ton and tobacco. This 
city is also a noted mule 
and horse market, and a 
great manufacturing 
centre. It manufactures 
immense quantities of 
tobacco, beer, flour, boots, 
shoes, clothing, and hard- 
ware. 

Formerly Chicago and 
St. Louis were almost 
the only noted markets 
for grain and live stock in the West ; but in later years several 
other cities have become prominent in that section. Two of these 
are the "twin cities," Minneapolis and St. Paul (Fig. 125). 
The latter, the capital of Minnesota, is a trade centre. From it the 
products of the West are sent eastward and southward, while farm- 
ing implements, furniture, clothing, and other articles are distributed 
among the smaller towns of the vast farming region round about. 

Minneapolis, only ten miles distant, is located at the Falls of 
St. Anthony, which furnish splendid water power. It is also in the 
midst of the wheat region ; and this, with its water power, has caused 
Minneapolis to become the leading flour-producing centre in America. 
In the city are many grain elevators and flour-mills (Fig. 126). 

One of these flour-mills, belonging to the Pillsbury-Washburn Com- 
pany, is the largest in the world. Steam shovels scoop the grain from 
the trains very rapidly, emptying a car of 750 bushels in eighteen to 
nineteen minutes. All straw, useless seeds, sticks, etc., must first be 
separated from the grain, and then it passes through many different 
machines before the pure flour is produced. During this process it must 
be raised to the top of the building twelve different times, being carried up 
by rapidly moving belts having many small buckets, or pockets, attached. 



Fig. 126. 
The Pillsbury-Washburn flour-mills at Minneapolis. 



126 



NORTH AMEBIC A 



Just inside the husk of a wheat grain is the kernel, the most valuable 
part of the wheat. First, the husk is removed by machinery, and this is 
sold for bran and shorts, while the centre, called the heart, or germ, is 
made into breakfast food. The other portion is ground into flour, poured 
into sacks and barrels by machinery, and then sent sliding down an 
inclined plane into the cars which stand near by. , This one mill has 
ground as much as 61,000 barrels of flour in six days. In 1899 the daily 
capacity of five mills owned by this company was 25,000 barrels. 

What have you already learned about the influence of the St. Anthony's 
Ealls on the lumber industry of Minneapolis ? 





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Fig. 127. 

Logs in the river near Minneapolis. One of the bridges across the Mississippi River at this 
point is seen in the background. 

Other smaller cities on and near the Mississippi, between this point 
and St. Louis, are Win"0N"a in Minnesota ; La Crosse in Wisconsin ; 
Dubuque, Davenport, and Des Moines in Iowa ; and Quincy and Peoria 
in Illinois. Each is important either for lumber, grain, or farming imple- 
ments, or for all three combined. 

Cities along the Missouri. — The leading cities on the Missouri 
River are Omaha in Nebraska and Kansas City (Fig. 125) in 
western Missouri. Each is surrounded by a fertile farming country 
which produces much grain. Each is also a market for cattle, sheep, 
and horses raised near by and in the semi-arid region farther west. 
Being so near the ranch country, both of these cities have a certain 
advantage over St. Louis and Chicago, and their meat-packing indus- 
try is gaining rapidly each year. This industry is most important 
at Kansas City, Kansas. 

Southwest of Omaha is Lincoln, the capital of Nebraska ; and across 
the river in Iowa is Council Bluffs, an important centre for farming 
implements. Several cities northwest of this point are chiefly important 
as trade centres. Find some of them on the map. On the river above 
Kansas City is St. Joseph in Missouri, and below it is Jefferson City, 
the capital of that state. Opposite is Kansas City, Kansas. Farther 



CENTRAL STATES 



127 



west, in Kansas, are Wichita and Topeka, the capital. Since we know 
the products of this section, it is clear why most of the larger cities are 
centres for stock, grain, and flour. 




Fig. 12S. 
Hogs in Kansas being fattened for the market. 

Cities in the Ohio Valley; — In the Middle Atlantic States, three 
cities of the upper Ohio — Pittsburg, Alleghen}^ and Wheeling — 
owe their importance largely to coal and iron, and to the fact that 
river boats could reach them. 

Farther down the river is 
Cincinnati (Fig. 129), the 
largest city in the Ohio valley, 
and a great manufacturing cen- 
tre. Besides pottery (p. 120), 
this city manufactures large 
quantities of iron, machinery, 
and clothing. Across the river 
in Kentucky are Covington 
and Newport (Fig. 124), both 
almost a part of Cincinnati, as 
Jersey City is almost a part of 
New York. Farther north and east, in Ohio, are Dayton and 
Springfield, both noted for the manufacture of farm machinery. 
Dayton, like Pullman in Chicago, makes a large number of cars. 
Columbus, the capital, is an important trade centre and manu- 
factures carriages, wagons, and other articles. The reasons why 
these cities are engaged in the manufacture of carriages and farm 




Fig. 129. 
River boats on the Ohio at Cincinnati. 



128 NORTH AMERICA 

machinery are, first, the presence of the necessary raw materials, 
such as iron ore, coal, and hard wood ; and, secondly, the many 
farms upon which these articles are needed. 

Farther down the river is Louisville, the largest city in Ken- 
tucky. There are rapids in the Ohio at this point, and a canal leads 
around them. Besides being a centre for tobacco, like Richmond 
and St. Louis, Louisville manufactures iron goods, farming imple- 
ments, flour, and leather goods. It is also a railway centre. 

EvANSViLLE, the largest river port in Indiana, is principally 
engaged in the manufacture of flour, machinery, and leather goods. 
Indianapolis, the capital and metropolis of Indiana, is in the midst 
of a splendid farming district. It is a railway and trade centre like 
Columbus, and handles much grain, lumber, and furniture. 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

Review Questions and Topics. — (1) Describe the physiography: — the 
plains ; the mountains ; the prairies ; the soil. (2) What about the climate of the 
section ? (3) Tell about the settlement of the Mississippi Valley : — first pioneers ; 
use of the rivers ; steamboats ; canals and railways ; rapid settlement in later years ; 
population. (4) Describe the farm in Ohio: — its size ; the buildings ; the prod- 
ucts; life on the farm. Would you care to live there? Why? (5) What fruits 
are raised, and where? (6) Where is tobacco raised, and what cities are engaged 
in its manufacture? (7) What kinds of stock are raised in Kentucky? What is 
the reason for their fine grade ? (8) Describe the Mannnoth Cave. (9) Tell about 
corn : — the planting ; the care of the field ; uses of corn ; cities which handle the 
corn. (10) Where is wheat raised? (11) Describe the Red River valley of the 
ISTorth. (12) Tell about wheat raising on the Dalrymple farm. (13) What cities 
have been influenced by this wheat region ? (14) What other grains are raised ? 
For what are they used ? In what cities ? (1 5) Describe cattle ranching : — where 
carried on ; reason ; the cattle ranch ; wandering of the cattle ; object and nature 
of the spring round-up ; of the beef round-up ; what is done with the cattle ; the 
life of the cowboys. (16) Where are the forests ? (17) What kinds of trees are 
found? (18) How is the lumbering carried on? (19) What cities are engaged 
in lumbering ? In the manufacture of articles from wood ? (20) What is the 
origin of the building stones? What kinds are found? Where? (21) Where 
are oil and gas obtained? Of what use are they? (22) Where is coal found? 
To what uses put? (23) Tell about the iron mining: — its development; nature 
of the ore ; where sent ; reason ; manner of loading the vessels ; cities sent from 
and shipped to; states producing it. (24) Study about copper: — where found ; 
how found ; mining ; obtaining the metal from the ore ; towns near the mines ; 
uses of copper. (25) What other minerals are obtained ? Where ? (26) What 
clay products are manufactured ? (27) Where is Rookwood ware made ? How ? 
(28) Where are the principal cities to be looked for? Why? (29) What cities 
at the western end of Lake Superior ? For what are they important ? (30) Give 
the reasons for the location of Chicago and its wonderful growth. (31) Describe 
meat packing in Chicago. (32) To what uses are the various products put? 



CENTS AL STATES 129 

(33) What manufacturing is carried on in Chicago? Why? (34) State some 
other facts about Chicago. (35) Briefly enumerate the important facts about Chi- 
cago. (36) What other Great Lake cities are thei-e? For what is each impor- 
tant ? (37) Name the cities along the Mississippi River, and tell for what each is 
important. (38) Describe flour milling. (39) Name the cities along the Missouri. 
For what is each important ? (40) Do the same for the Ohio valley. 

Review by States: Ohio (0.). — (1) Name the four largest cities (Appen- 
dix, pp. iv-vii). Where is each located ? Why there? (2) What other cities of 
Ohio are mentioned? For what is each important? (3) Why is there much 
manufacturing in this state? (4) What other industries are mentioned in the 
text? (5) Examine the maps (Figs. 209 to 216) in order to see what crops are 
raised in Ohio. (6) In what ways are the cities of Ohio dependent upon New 
Orleans and New York? How are the latter cities dependent upon those in 
Ohio? (7) Of what service to Cleveland and Toledo is the Erie Canal? 
(8) Draw a sketch map of Ohio like that of Maine (p. .57). As you study each 
state do the same. 

Indiana (IncL). — ,(9) Examine the maps (Figs. 209 to 216) to see what crops 
are produced in Indiana. (10) Which is the largest city ? For what noted ? 
(11) What other cities were mentioned ? (12) What are the industries of Indi- 
ana ? (13) Examine the relief map to see if the relief seems favorable to farming. 
What other Central States resemble this in relief? (14) Of what importance was 
the fact that so large a part of this section was treeless when discovered ? 

Kentucky (Ky.). — (15) Why should this state be better adapted to tobacco 
raising than Ohio? (16) Of what importance is the limestone of Kentucky? 
(17) Where are most of the cities located? Why there? (18) What products 
are mentioned from Kentucky ? (19) Which is the largest city ? For what impor- 
tant? (20) What other cities are mentioned? 

Illinois (III.). — (21) What industries are mentioned from this state? (22) Ex- 
amine the maps (Figs. 209 to 216) to see what crops are raised. (23) Why is there 
much manufacturing in Illinois ? What kinds are carried on ? (24) Of what value 
is the lake to manufacturing ? (25) State the reasons why Chicago has developed 
so greatly. (26) What other cities are mentioned in this state ? For what is each 
important? (27) In the Appendix (pp. iv-vii) find the population of the three 
largest cities of each of the four states so far reviewed, and compare them. 
(28) Which of these four states is the largest ? Which smallest? (Appendix, p. iii.) 

Michigan (Mich.). — (29) What lakes does this state border? Of what advan- 
tage is this ? (30) What disadvantage can you see in the fact that water separates 
the lower from the upper peninsula of Michigan? (31) Ice stops lake traflic in 
winter. What effect must this have? (32) Into what waters does this state 
drain? Contrast this with the other states. (33) Where are most of the large 
cities? Why there ? (34) For what is each important? (35) Give the reasons 
for the location of Detroit. (36) What are the important products of Michigan? 

Wisconsin (Wis.). — (37) Which is -the largest city in this state? For what 
important? (38) What other cities are mentioned in the text? What is done in 
each? (39) Compare Wisconsin with Michigan in relief; in industries; in min- 
eral products; in crops; in the size of cities. (40) What effect must the lakes 
have upon tlie climate ? Would this influence be greater or less than in Michigan ? 
Why? (41) If there were coal beds in northern Wisconsin, what effect might it 
have upon Chicago, Cleveland, and the coal mining of Pennsylvania? 

Minnesota (Minn.). — (42) Where does the Mississippi River rise ? (43) What 
oceans receive the waters that fall upon Minnesota? Through what rivers? 
(44) What industries are carried on in this state ? (45) What crops are raised ? 



130 NORTH AMERICA 

(46) Name the three largest cities, and tell why each is important. (47) How 
does the largest compare with Boston ? With Cincinnati ? 

Iowa (^la.). — (48) Examine the maps (Figs. 209 to 216) to see what crops are 
raised in this state. (49) What other important industries are carried on ? 
(.50) Name the largest cities. For what noted? (51) Much corn is raised here ; 
what must be done with it? 

Missouri (Mo.). — (52) Examine Figures 209 to 216 to see how the crops of 
Missouri differ from those of Minnesota. Why is there this difference ? (53) Why 
are so few towns found in the southwestern part? (54) Name and locate the two 
largest cities. For what is each important? (55) What other cities are men- 
tioned? (56) Find the jjopulation of St. Louis; compare it with New York, 
Chicago, Philadelphia, and Boston. (57) Give reasons for its great size. 
B-: Kansas (Kan.). — (58) Why are the cities in the eastern part? (.59) What 
are the industries of the west? Why? (60) AVhat crops are raised in Kansas 
(Figs. 212 to 218). (61) Name the principal cities. For what is each noted? 

Nebraska (Neb.). — (62) How do the industries of Nebraska compare with 
those of Kansas? Why? (63) How are these states alike in regard to location of 
cities? (64) What cities in Nebraska are mentioned ? (65) For what is Omaha 
noted ? Why may we expect it to increase in imisortance in this respect ? 

North and South Dakota (N.D. and S.D.). — (66) These two states were 
formerly the territory of Dakota. What reason can you see for making two states 
out of the one territory ? (67) How do the industries of the two states compare 
with those of Nebraska and Kansas ? (68) Look at the corn and wheat maps 
(Figs. 209 and 211) to see where most wheat and corn are produced. Is North 
Dakota more or less important than Kansas as a corn-pi-oducing state? Answer 
the same for wheat. Tell why this is so. (69) Of what advantage would it be to 
Fargo if a deep river extended from that city to Duluth ? (70) What do the Black 
Hills contribute to the M'ealth of South Dakota? 

General. — (71) Which state is the largest in this group? (Appendix, p. iii.) 
Which smallest? Compare each of these with Mass., R.I., N.Y., N.C., and Tex. 

(72) Which of the Central States has the most inhabitants? (Appendix, p. iii.) 
Which the least? Compare each of these with Mass., R.L, N.Y., N.C., and Tex. 

(73) Find the ten largest cities (Appendix, pp. iv-vii). How does their popula- 
tion compare with that of the ten largest in the other groups of states ? 

Suggestions. ^ (1) Write a brief description of the Western prairies. 
(2) Find how much earlier in the fall frosts come in Minneapolis than in Mem- 
phis. (3) Mention several advantages of farm life over city life. (4) How do 
farms that you have seen differ from the Ohio farm described in the text? 
(5) Find other uses of corn besides those mentioned. (6) How does the wind 
often help ranch cattle to obtain food in winter? (7) What are some of the ad- 
ventures that cowboys experience? (8) Why are coal and brick especially valuable 
in a prairie country? (9) Examine a brickyard, and write a description of brick- 
making. (10) See how long a list you cSn make of articles manufactured partly 
or wholly out of copper. (11) Do the same in regard to lead. (12) How are 
the advantages of the location of Chicago somewhat similar to those of Atlanta? 
(13) Make a drawing of the great water route from Duluth to New York City, 
and put in the leading cities. What states border on this route ? (14) Make 
a drawing of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers, and include the leading 
cities. What states do these rivers border or pass through? (15) State clearly 
the advantages of these water ways. (17) Make a sketch map of the Central 
States, including the principal lakes, rivers, and cities. 

For References, see Teacher^s Book. 




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Fig. 132. 
Map to show the location of San Francisco, Portland, Tacoma, and Seattle. 



IX. THE WESTERN STATES 





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Fig. 133. 

A Spanish mission in southern California — a relic of 
the days when that section belonged to Spain. 



Early Settlements. — While the pioneers were settling the prairies 
of the Central States, almost nothing was known abont the Far 
West. The Spanish had taken possession of the Southern portion, 
and many of their names 
are still retained, as New 
^ Mexico, Los Angeles, and 
San Francisco. In 1848 
gold was discovered in the 
stream gravels of Cali- 
fornia, and hundreds of 
thousands of persons left 
farms, factories, and homes 
in a mad rush for the gold 
fields. Some sailed all the 
way aroundSouth America; 
others crossed the Isthmus of Panama ; but many travelled overland, 
running the risk of attack from Indians and of death from thirst. 
There were then no railways west of the Mississippi, and the journe}^ 
was long and tedious. 

For ages the precious metal had lain scattered through the rocks of 
the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Then, as the mountains slowly crumbled, 
it had been washed into the streams. Most minerals decay when exposed 
to the air; but gold always remains bright. Being heavier than most 
minerals, the gold in the streams dragged along at the bottom, lodging 
here and there in the stream beds, oftentimes in little pockets or behind 
boulders where the current was checked. 

It was this gold that the early gold hunters, or prospectors, were 
seeking, and they obtained it in a very simple manner. Placing some of 
the stream gravel in a pan of water, they rocked it back and forth in 
such a way as to cause the heavier particles of gold to separate from the 
gravel, while the lighter minerals were thrown away. The prospectors 
were sometimes rewarded by finding large lumps of gold, called nuggets, 
worth hundreds of dollars. 

131 



132 NOETH AMERICA 

The discovery of gold quickly drew so many persons to Califor- 
nia that the territory Avas able to enter the Union as a state in 1850^^; 
and, as the search for the precious metal was carried farther and 
farther, the West soon became explored and settled. Railways were 
built across the mountains (Fig. 134), and many industries, such as 
farming, lumbering, and ranching, have followed mining. Indeed, 




Fig. 134. 
A railway winding about as it crosses the Rocky Mountains. 

in many sections these industries are now much more important than 
even gold and silver mining. 

Physiography. — The Western States are made up almost entirely 
of plateaus and mountains. Most of the surface is more than a 
mile above sea-level, while some mountain peaks are two and three 
miles in height. 

The extreme eastern portion is a continuation of the Great Plains 
(p. Ill), which reach to the very base of the Rocky Mountains. 
These mountains (Fig. 131) extend entirely across the country into 
Mexico on the south and Canada on the north. They are made up 
of a large number of ranges and ridges, which attain their greatest 
height in Colorado. 

A long distance farther west, and almost parallel with the 
Rockies, is another system of mountains, called the Sierra Nevada 
Mountains in California and the Cascade Ranges in Oregon and 
Washington. Still farther west, and close to the coast, is a third 
series, known as the Coast Ranges, which in places rise directly out 
of the ocean. 



THE WESTERN STATES 



133 




Just west of the Rocky Mountains is a plateau, dotted with 
numerous mountain peaks and small ridges. It is higher at the 
two ends than in the middle, and may be divided into three parts 
(Fig. 43) : (1) the great Columbia plateau of Idaho, Oregon, and 
Washington on the north ; (2) the Colorado plateau of Arizona 
and Utah on the south ; and (3) the Great Basin of Utah and 
Nevada between the .two. The numerous short north and south 
mountain ranges in the Great Basin are called the Basin Ranges. 

Between the Sierra Nevada-Cascade system and the Coast Ranges 
there is an area of lowland (Fig. 143). In California and Oregon this 
forms a fertile valley ; in 
Washington it is occupied by 
Puget Sound. 

Throughout most of this 
Western country evidences of 
volcanic action abound (p. 5). 
Some of the loftiest peaks 
are extinct volcanoes, as Mt. 
Rainier, within sight of Ta- 
coMA, Washington ; Mt. Hood 
(Fig. 135), not far from Port- 
land, Oregon ; and Mt. Shasta, 
in northern California. 

The influence of lava on 
the West is marked. For hundreds of thousands of square miles it forms 
the rock of the country, and its decay has produced a soil which is very 
fertile. It covers the plateaus, especially in the north, and is one of the 
chief causes of the peculiar scenery of the West. 

Even more important still is the effect of the lava upon the formation 
of minerals. Veins of gold and silver usually occupy cracks in the rock 
which have been caused by the breaking of the strata while the mountains 
were forming. Through these cracks water passes, heated so hot by con- 
tact with the volcanic rocks that it is able to carry mineral matter in solu- 
tion. As the water cools, on nearing the surface, it cannot hold all of its 
mineral burden in solution, and therefore deposits a part of the metal on the 
walls of these cracks. In this way many valuable veins of metal have 
been slowdy gathered, and it is for these that thousands of miners are now 
searching. 

Climate. — Unlike the East, where the climate is very uniform 
over large sections, the West is a region of contrasts, with a great 
variety of climate from place to place. The most general fact about 
the climate of this vast Western region is its aridity. Nearly every- 
where it is so dry that no agriculture is possible without irrigation. 



Fig. 135. 
Mt. Hood, Oregon. 



134 NORTH AMERICA 

Only among the high plateaus and mountains, and in Washington, 
western Oregon, and northern California, is there rainfall enough 
for forests or for farming. Thus, almost one-fifth of the entire con- 
tinent is a partial or complete desert. 

Along the northwestern coast the damp west winds bring so 
much vapor that the rainfall is heav3^ Indeed, near the coast of 
Washington there is a rainfall greater than in any other part of the 
United States (Fig. 257), the heaviest rain coming in winter. But 
.being robbed of its vapor in crossing the mountains, the air descends 
on the eastern side so dry that agriculture is possible only in a few 
sections, as in the high mountain valleys and in the wheat district 
of central and eastern Washington. 

A part of Nevada, Utah, and Arizona is a true desert, and por- 
tions of each of the other states approach it. Near the northern 
shores of Great Salt Lake, for example, not a tree nor even a shrub 
is to be seen for miles and miles. The entire surface is covered by 
a glistening whitish substance called alkali. In other regions dreary 
wastes extend hundreds of miles, interrupted only by a few cacti and 
other arid land plants, by rocky ledges, and by occasional mountain 
peaks. 

Tlie lack of water is shown on the map by the scarcity of streams 
in and near Nevada. That section is a real basin, having a rim 
higher than the centre, and is called the G-reat Basin (Fig. 43). Its 
few streams either flow into shallow salt lakes, which are growing 
more and more salt as the years pass, or they dry up and disappear 
in the sand. 

That rain falls on the cool mountains and plateaus of the West 
is proved by the numerous large rivers which have their sources 
there. Name and locate those flowing from the Rocky Mountains 
into the Mississippi. Trace the Rio Grande and the rivers that 
empty into the Pacific Ocean. Although long, these rivers are not 
navigable, partly because of the steep slopes, and partly because of 
the lack of water. Indeed, during the dry summer season, many, like 
the Rio Grande, almost disappear in the middle part of their course. 

The importance of even the higher plateaus in condensing the vapor 
is well illustrated by the highlands of Central Arizona. A person travel- 
ling eastward from Los Angeles, on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Pe 
Railway, upon reaching the Colorado River in the evening, finds himself 
in the midst of a desert about 500 feet above sea-level. If it is summer, 
the thermometer may register from 110° to 120° in the shade, for this is the 



THE WESTERN STATES 



135 



hottest region in tlie United States, hotter than many parts of the torrid 
zone. After leaving the river, the train ascends the Colorado plat6aii, 
7000 feet high, and the next morning the traveller is in the midst of a 
forest, while the almost unbearable heat of the previous day is replaced 
by a delightfully cool air. As if by magic the scene is changed, simply 
because, on the elevated plateau, the air is cooler and the vapor can 
therefore be condensed into rain. 

Mineral Products. — As we have already seen, mining was the 
first industry to attract large numbers of pioneers to the Far West. 
Every one of the Western States contains mineral deposits of some 




Fig. 136. 
Washing gold from gravel beds in California by means of hydraulic mining. 



kind, as gold, silver, copper, lead, mercury, and coal. This region is 
now the most important mining district in the world. 

Much of the land is still owned by the government, and all ore 
that is discovered upon it belongs to the finder. Any citizen of the 
United States may become the owner of a valuable mine, if he can 
find one on government land. Consequently, hundreds of pros- 
pectors are digging tunnels into the earth wherever they believe 
they may obtain ore. In most cases they are doomed to disap- 
pointment, but they keep trying, moving from place to place. 
Sometimes, however, valuable ore is found, and then the poor pros- 
pectors become suddenly rich. 

Much gold has been discovered in the gravels of stream beds 
where water no longer flows. In many places these dry beds are 



136 NOETR AMERICA 

near the surface, so that mining is easy ; in others, they have been 
covered up with a thick bhmket of hard lava, beneath which the 
miners are obliged to tunnel in order to follow them. 

Very early the miners became dissatisfied with the slow "pan- 
ning " of the gold, as washing the gravel in pans was called 
(p. 131). They then adopted the far more speed}^ plan of hydraulic 
mining. By this method a powerful stream of water is turned 
against a gravel bank from the nozzle of a pipe, washing the gravel 
rapidly away (Fig. 136). The water, gravel, and gold are led into 
steeply sloping troughs, or sluices, which have numerous huge blocks 
set on end across them. The water, with its load of gravel, rushes 
over the blocks to the end of the sluices, where the coarser gravel 
and rock is dropped ; but the gold, being so heavy, settles to the 
bottom of the sluices and is caught behind the blocks, where it is 
later collected. 

Much gold has been obtained from the gravels of other western 
states than California. For example, even the gravel out of which 
some of the streets of Helena, Montana, are built has been washed 
for gold. 

Another method of mining gold, and the one by which most of 
that metal is now obtained, is to dig into the solid rock. The shafts 
and tunnels follow the veins from which the gold in the gravels 
originally came. In the veins, the metal is found in rock mixed 

with other minerals 
which are of little 
or no value ; but the 
gold occurs in such 
small grains that one 
may spend days in a 
mine looking for it, 
without seeing any. 

^^^- 1^'^- One of the most 

A western stage coach bringing a crowd of miners into a newly vpii-ifivlrQKlp mining dis- 
discovered mining camp, as miners were carried into Cripple . . ,^ 

Creek a few years ago. tricts m the world was 

that of the Comstock 
Lode at Vikginia City, Nevada. The vein was irregular in richness, some 
parts, called "bonanzas," containing so much gold and silver that vast 
quantities were taken out, while elsewhere it was barren. So much metal 
was obtained from this single vein that ISTevada at one time produced 
more silver than all the other states put together, and more gold than any 




THE WESTEBN STATES . 137 

other state in tlie Union. So many people moved there then that ISTevada 
territory became a state in 1864 ; and Virgin'ia City, though in the midst 
of the desert, grew to be a thriving city. 

As the mines went deeper, hot water with a temperature of 170° 
entered. This caused the temperature in the mines to be almost unbear- 
able. Ice-cold air was forced in, and machinery and mules were made to 
do most of the work ; but even then men fainted at their post. Partly 
because of the difl&culty of mining, and partly because of the failure to 
discover new bonanzas, some of the mines were abandoned and people 
drifted away from Virginia City, so that the population of Nevada 
decreased. What is its present population ? (Appendix, p. vii.) Com- 
pare it with New York City in. population (Appendix, p. vi). With the 
large city nearest to your home. 

At the present time Colorado produces more gold and silver 
than any other state (Figs. 225 and 226), and much copper, lead, 
iron, and coal, besides. Among the mountains, one ' sees mines 
almost everywhere ; but one of the most noted mining districts is 
near Leadville, a city at an elevation of over 10,000 feet above 
sea-level. iVnotlier well-known mining camp in Colorado is Crip- 
ple Creek. xA few years ago no town existed there, and the ore, 
which has now become so valuable, was not recognized as ore by the 
prospectors. Finally, when some one discovered the gold, at once, 
as in previous cases where that metal has been discovered, thousands 
of people rushed in from all directions and a city sprang up almost 
in a day. 

After the ore is taken from the mines it must be crushed, the worth- 
less parts must be washed out, and the remainder sent to the smelters 




Fig. 138. 
A smelter at Great Falls, Montana. 



(Fig. 138), where the metal is obtained by a complicated process. The 
machinery for crushing and smelting is so expensive that ores from many 
mines are sent to one place, and must sometimes be carried a long dis- 
tance. The mines near Leadville send their ore to that city ; but many 
mines in Colorado ship ore to the smelters at Denver and Pueblo. 



138 NOBTH AMERICA 

The western half of Montana is another great mming section. 
Helena has already been mentioned (p. 136); but no portion of 
the state is now so important for mining as Butte. There the 
principal metal is copper, although some gold and silver are mixed 
with the ore. More copper is produced at Butte than in any other 
mining district in the world. The mines are very extensive, reach- 
ing several thousand feet into the earth and having miles of tunnels, 
through which one might wander for days without finding his way 
out. 

Much of the ore is crushed and reduced in smelters within the 
city limits. In the process, fumes of sulphur pour forth from the 
tall chimneys, and settle to the ground, killing almost all vegetation, 
and causing the city and its immediate surroundings to present a 
barren, desolate appearance. 

As in Colorado and Montana, the principal industry in Arizona is min- 
ing, much copper, silver, lead, and gold being produced. One of the largest 
cities in the territory is Tucson, wliicli, together with the others, is mainly 
engaged in business connected with mining. There is also much mining, 
especially of gold, silver, and copper, in each of the other Western States, 
especially in Idaho, Utah, and Kew Mexico. 

Iron is found in several of the states, but it is not mined to any extent 
except west of Pueblo, in Colorado. Coal, usually of poor quality, also 
occurs in many sections ; but a very good grade of coal is produced in 
Colorado, and in the state of Washington. 

Lumbering. — Because of the extensive development of mining 
there is much lumbering. The Butte mines alone consume millions 
of feet per year. In the mines lieavy timbers are placed upright 
and close together on each side of a tunnel, with cross-pieces over- 
head, to prevent the rock from caving in. Because of the great 
pressure upon them, timbers more than a foot in diameter are often 
broken. 

While a great portion of the country is arid, the mountains and 
some of the higher plateaus are forested. Thus the mines, which 
are usually among the high mountains, are generally supplied with- 
out difficulty, for the logs are easily brought down to them from 
above. 

In the damp, equable climate near the northwestern coast, are 
forests of giant redwood, fir, cedar, and spruce trees which grow 
to a greater size than any other trees in the world (Fig. 140). 
While the logs in Maine and Michigan are rarely more than two or 



THE WESTEBN STATES 



139 



three feet in diameter, many in Washington and Oregon are from 
six to ten feet throngh, and some in California are very much larger. 

A visit to a lumbering camp near Tacoma will show that, owing to 
the size of the trees, and to the climate, the work is carried on very differ- 
ently from lumbering in Maine (p. 42). The men are able to work both 
winter and summer. They select a tree which 
perhaps towers upward for two hundred feet, — 
that is higher than most church steeples, — and 
contains as much as iifteen thousand feet of lumber, 
or enough, when sawed into boards, to build a small 
house. Two men saw and chop at this tree for 
nearly an hour (Fig. 139), until the giant begins 
to quiver. When finally it falls, a wonderful sight 
may be seen. The tree bends slowly over, quickens 
its movement^ then falls to the ground with a 
mighty roar, breaking good-sized trees, against 
which it falls, as if they were twigs. 

After the branches are removed, the tree is 

sawed into logs of different lengths, as twenty-four, 

thirty-two, forty-eight feet, and these are dragged Chopping down a tree in 

to a railway which leads up into the forest. Several Washington The men 

•^ . IP T Stand on platforms so 

of these sections are then lastened together, one ^g to reach above the 

behind the other, and dragged between the rails decayed wood near the 

to the foot of the mountain, several miles away. ^^^^" 

There they are piled upon flat cars and taken to the mills, a single 

section sometimes occupying an entire car. Many go to Tacoma and 




Fig. 139. 




Fig. 140. 

One of the great logs ready to be removed from the forest in Washington. A small engine, 
used to draw the logs to the railway, is also shown. 



140 



NOBTH AMERICA 



Seattle, where tliere are enormous sawmills. Since there is so much 
lumber, many of the streets of Tacoma, and other places in this region, 
are paved with thick planks instead of stone or asphalt. 

Agriculture. — Farming is carried on extensively in the well- 
watered section of the Northwest (Fig. 141). This is a wheat-pro- 
ducing country like the Red River valley. Indeed, some of the 
farms are even larger than the Dalrymple farm (p. 110). Barley is 
another common grain and much hay is also raised. During harvest 




Fig. lil. 

Harvesting wheat in the great wheat fields of the Palouse region of Washington. By this 
machine, drawn by many mules, the wheat is cut and the seed removed at the same 
time. A farm must be very large to make such an expensive machine pay. 

season the air is so dry that both hay and grain may be left out for 
weeks with little danger of being spoiled by rain. 

Great quantities of fruit are also raised in this region. In the 
north apples, pears, and grapes are produced; but in the south, as 
for instance near Stockton, and Sacramento, the capital of Cali- 
fornia, are groves of oranges, lemons, olives, and figs, as well as other 
trees which grow only in warm climates. 

But the only way in which farming is possible in most other parts 
of the West is by means of irrigation (Fig. 143). The influence of 
irrigation is well illustrated in the region near Denver, which is in 
the midst of an arid plain. This is crossed, however, by the South 
Fork of the Platte River, from which a ditch as large as a canal is 
led out upon the plain. The river itself has a rapid fall ; but just 
enough slope has been given to the ditch to secure a flow of the 
water. By this means the land between the ditch and the river is at 
a lower level than the ditch, and may therefore be reached by the water. 

Smaller branches are led off from the main ditch, and each of 
these is divided and subdivided , to supply farms along its course. 
When a field needs water, the ditch is tapped and the field flooded, 
or else the water is led into little furrows a few feet apart. The 



THE WESTEBN STATES 



141 




method followed depends upon the kind of crop that is under culti- 
vation. As there is danger that the supply of water may not last 
through the summer, reser- 
voirs (Fig. 142) are built 
to store the water furnished 
by the spring freshets ; 
and when needed, this is 
allowed to flow into the 
ditch. 

Of course such an ar- 
rangement is expensive, 
and each farmer must pay 
for his water at a certain rate, as each house in a city pays for 
its water or gas. That one can afford to do so is well shown in 
this case ; for on the upper side of the ditch, which cannot be 
reached by the water, the land is fit only for grazing, while the land 
which can be irrigated is covered with cultivated fields of grain, 
vegetables, and alfalfa. The latter is a very nutritious plant which, 
like clover and hay, is fed to stock. 

Without irrigation, crops could not be grown in this vicinity, 
but would need to be brought several hundred miles, from' Kansas, 



Fig. 142. 

A reservoir for irrigation near San Diego, California. 




Fig. 143. 
An irrigation clitcli on the plains near Billings, Montana. 



Nebraska, and other states. It is evident, tlierefore, that irrigation 
must have had a great influence on the settlement of the West. 
Without it Denver and Pueblo would not be the cities that they 
are ; and, because of the difficulty of obtaining food, scores of min- 
ing towns would not be in existence. 

Wherever the waters of the rivers are led out over the fields, 
people form settlements and often small cities. That is the case 



142 



NORTH AMERICA 



at Greeley, in Colorado, Cheyenne and Laramie, the principal 
cities in Wyoming, and numerous other places. 

One of the best farming districts in the arid lands is in Utah. Most 
of that state was originally almost a desert, but large areas have been en- 
tirely changed by the Mormons, a religious sect organized by Joseph Smith 
in New York in 1830. 

Under the leadership of Brigham Yoiuig these people migrated into 
the then unknown West and settled a few miles from Great Salt Lake. 
There they commenced to build Salt Lake City, which is now one of the 
most beautiful cities in the country. They also began to raise crops by 
irrigation, to plant fruit trees, and to convert portions of the desert waste 
into beautiful gardens. 

There are now many " gentiles," as those among them who do not accept 
Mormonism are called ; and agriculture is no longer the sole industry, for 
many rich mines, especially of gold, silver, and copper, have been opened. 
There are numerous busy towns and cities, the largest, aside from the 
capital, Salt Lake City, being Ogden, which lies north of the capital. 

Southern California is a third section noted for its extensive 
irrigation. The mountains of the neighborhood condense the vapor, 
and the water is led into long irrigating ditches and stored in im- 
mense reservoirs (Fig. 142). The 
region is far south and its shores 
are bathed by warm ocean waters, 
so that the climate is warm and 
delightful. Although the land is 
by nature almost a desert, the 
addition of water to the fertile soil 
has changed the countrj^ about Los 
Angeles to one of the garden spots 
of the world. This region produces 
oranges, lemons, peaches, pears, 
grapes, figs, olives, walnuts, almonds, 
and many other kinds of fruits and 
nuts. 




Fig. 144. 



An orange grove near Los Angeles. Notice 
the snow-capped mountains in the back- 
ground from which water for irrigation 
is obtained. 



Among the fruits the most common 
is the orange, especially the. seedless 
navel orange. In the neighborhood of 
Los Angeles every home has its orange trees, and in many cases is entirely 
surrounded by groves of them. The winter season is the harvest time for 
oranges, which begin to be picked from the trees about the middle of Novem- 
ber and continue to be gathered until February or later. They are cut from 
the trees, sorted according to size, then packed in boxes and shipped away. 



THE WESTERN STATES 



143 



The groves of all kinds are planted in straight rows, and the ground is 
kept so clean by frequent ploughing that scarcely a weed is to be seen. In* 
this respect the groves contrast very strikingly with the orchards, over- 
grown with grass and weeds, that are seen upon farms of the East. 

Besides fruit in the fresh state, immense quantities of fruit, such as 
peaches, prunes, apricots, grapes (Fig. 145), and figs, are dried, usually by 
exposure to the sun. In the Eastern States fruit would decay if left out 
of doors ; but in the sunny climate of the arid lands it dries quickly. 
Great quantities of fruit are also canned, as near Baltimore and elsewhere 
in the East. 

Thousands of persons from the East were originally attracted to 
southern California by the mild climate; but seeing the oj)portunity 
for fruit raising, they started orange groves. As a result of this, 
Los Angeles has rapidly grown to a city of more than a hundred 
thousand inhabitants (Fig. 1-54), 
while nearby are numerous smaller 
cities. Land that a few years ago 
was almost a desert, and worth at 
best only a few dollars an acre, 
now supports flourishing groves 
of fruit. 

So important is irrigation that 
it is being introduced wherever pos- 
sible ; and every year new irriga- 
tion systems are being built, some 
of them at great expense. One of 
the future problems of the West 
is how to store the water of the 
melting snows until needed by the 
summer crops. 

Ranching. — There is so little rainfall in the arid West that only a 
part of the land can be irrigated. This leaves most of tlie counti'v 
suited only to grazing; and wherever there is water enough for 
the animals to drink, cattle, horse, and sheep ranches are found. Li 
some parts, especially where the grass is scanty, herds of goats are raised. 

The manner in which a cattle ranch in Dakota is conducted was 
described on page 111, and much the same plan is followed for cattle 
and horses in the Western States. Sheep ranching is conducted 
somewhat differently, as can be seen from the ranches about Bill- 
IXGS, Montana. A good-sized ranch has from twenty-five thousand 
to forty thousand head of sheep, which, like cattle, may be fed partly 




Fig. 145. 

Raisins drying between the rows of grape 
vines in a California vineyard. 



144 



NOBTH AMERICA 



upon the government land, or the " range," and partly on land fenced 
in and owned by the ranchman. During the coldest winter weather 
the sheep are in many cases driven into protected corrals and fed on 




Fig. 146. 
A herd of sheep in winter, feeding iu a field of alfalfa near Billings, Montana. 

alfalfa (Fig. 146), because the snow on the range sometimes becomes 
so deep that they cannot obtain food. However, the fierce winds of 
the open plains help them by drifting the snow and thus leaving 
open patches where they can lind grass. 









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Fig. 147. 
A sheep herder, and his flock of sheep. 



When the sheep are feeding on the range one man with a dog 
(Fig. 147) can herd twenty-five hundred ; and, with a horse in addi- 
tion, he sometimes takes care of five thousand. Selecting some spot 



THE WESTERN STATES 145 

near water for a camp, the herder drives his sheep out each morning 
and back at night, going each day a distance of a mile or two from 
camp. When the grass is eaten in one place, the camp is moved ; 
then, from another point as a centre, they wander out as before. 

The life of the herder is extremely lonesoine, both day and night being 
spent with the sheep. Once a week a man comes to bring him food ; and 
for weeks, and even months at a time, that is the only company he has, 
aside from his sheep, his dog, and possibly his horse. 

After the winter is over, the first profit to the ranchman comes from 
the sale of the pelts of sheep which have died during the cold weather. He 
expects a loss of about five per cent a year from this cause. 

The next harvest comes from the wool. Men who make it their busi- 
ness to shear sheep travel in squads of about twenty-five. They erect 
sheds and pens near some sheep centre, such as Billings, and shear all 




Fig. 148. 

A load of wool, drawn by twelve oxen, entering Billings after a long journey from a distant 

ranch . 

the sheep that are brought to them. Sometimes sheep are sheared at the 
ranch ; but many consider it more desirable to drive them near to a market, 
thus saving the expense of drawing the wool a long distance to the rail- 
way station (Fig. 148). In this way the sheep also secure food on the 
range while on the journey to and from the market. 

In the Southwestern States sheep are often sheared twice a year ; but 
farther north it is done only once, and then as near the month of June as 
possible. Can you suggest a reason for choosing that time ? After the 
wool is cut, it is pressed into bales and shipped to various markets in the 
East. Where should you think it might be sent, and for what purpose 
used? 

From July on, many sheep are sold for mutton. Those that are from 
three to five years old, and that have already borne a quantity of wool, are 
usually selected for this purpose. The hides are useful for leather, the 
bones for fertilizing the soil, and the tallow for candles. 



146 



NORTH AMERICA 



Territories. — Arizona and New Mexico are still territories, al- 
though Arizona has twice as many inhabitants as the state of 
Nevada, and New Mexico nearly four times as many. 

This is the region in which some of the most highly developed 
Indians were discovered by the Spaniards (p. 25), and here some 
of their descendants still occupy reservations. However, most of the 

country is now occupied 
by Americans and Mexi- 
cans, who have formed 
numerous towns and 
cities, such as Albu- 
querque, the largest city 
in New Mexico. 




Fig. 149. 
Cliff-dwellings, built in caves beneath the overhanging 



The Pueblo Indians are 
cljgg especially interesting, for 

some of them still live after 
the manner of their ancestors. Their homes are built of sun-dried clay, 
or adobe, and in some cases are entered from the roof by means of a 
ladder (Fig. 28). They were intended as strongholds for the storing of 
grain and for protection against wandering tribes which might attack 
them at any time. Other Indian houses, the cliff-dwellings (Fig. 149). 
were built on the sides of cliffs beneath overhanging ledges; and still 
others, cave-divellings, were in caves dug out of the rocks by the 
Indians. 

Among the early Spanish settlements is the quaint city of Santa Fe, 
the capital of New Mexico. > 

There, as elsewhere in the ter- 
ritory, the houses are mostly 
low, one-story, adobe buildings 
(Fig. 150). Spanish is the lan- 
guage most commonly heard, 
and on all hands one sees the 
primitive customs of a century 
ago. For instance, wheat, in- 
stead of being threshed out by 
machines, is often spread upon 
the ground in an enclosure and 
tramped by goats until the 
grain is separated from the 

hull. The grain is then tossed into the air in order that the wind may 
carry away the chaff. However, in many parts of New Mexico and 
Arizona, mining and other industries are well developed, [and there are 
many American residents. 




Fig. 150. 

A view in a New Mexico town, showing the low adobe 
houses in which the Mexicans live. 



THE WESTERN STATES 



147 



Scenery 

In many places among the mountains there are sights comparing 
favorably with those of the Alps, which attract so many Americans 
abroad. Fine views, strangely formed cliffs, deep canyons, and 
imposing waterfalls are present without number. But among all the 
interesting places there are three that easily surpass the others in 
magnificance and grandeur. These are the Yellowstone National 
Park, the Colorado Canyon, and the Yosemite Valley. 

The Yellowstone Park. — This region, chiefly in Wyoming, is a 
tract of land, larger than Connecticut, which the government has set 
aside as a national park. It is often called the " Wonderland of 
America." Among the many objects of interest are boiling springs, 
boiling mud springs of different colors, deep canyons, and waterfalls. 
Some of the springs are on the level of the ground, so that one 
must be on the constant outlook lest he step into one ; others are 
surrounded by a rim several feet high. 

A stage road leads from the JSTorthern Pacific Railway to the Mammoth 
Hot Springs on the northern side of the Park. There, from openings in 
the hillside, heated water flows 
down over beautifully colored 
terraces which have been built 
by a deposit of mineral matter 
brought by the water. Parther 
on are boiling springs, and here 
and there is one, called a geyser, 
from which hot water and steam 
occasionally burst forth with 
great violence, sometimes to a 
heiglit of 100 or 200 feet (Pig. 
151). " Old Paithful," one of the 
most regular of these, plays at 
intervals of 65 minutes, to a 
height of 100 to 130 feet. 
Others discharge at much longer 
periods, as two to three hours, 
or several days ; and in some 

cases the roar of escaping steam lasts for hours after the water has all 
been expelled. The outbursts are really explosions of steam, the heat 
being supplied from deep in the earth. 

Beyond the geyser basins the Yellowstone Lake is reached, a beautiful 
sheet of water, nestled in the mountains at a height of nearly 8000 feet 
above the sea. Its waters flow northward, forming the Yellowstone River, 




Fig. 151. 

An eruption of one of the geysers of the Yellow- 
stone Park. 



148 



NORTH AMERICA 



a tributary of the Missouri. To many persons, the falls and canyon of 
this river are the greatest wonders of the Park. Soon after leaving the 
lake, the stream narrows and quickens, and the water leaps 109 feet 
directly downward. A short distance farther on it tumbles 308 feet 
farther, or almost twice the height of Niagara. It then runs between 
banks which extend 1000 feet above it. 
% The canyon is somewhat winding, with numerous bold cliffs jutting 
far out into the abyss ; and from these, wonderful and inspiring views 
may be obtained. Far below, one sees the silvery stream, too distant to 




Fig. 152. 
A view in the Colorado Canyon. 

be heard as it dashes along. Across the chasm, a half mile away, dark 
green pines fringe the bank ; and between the water and these woods are 
gorgeously colored rock strata, having all colors of the rainbow. 

Colorado Canyon. — One portion of the Colorado Canyon, in 
Arizona, may be reached on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe 
Railway. The wonderful Yellowstone Canyon, just described, is a 
pygmy compared with this (Fig- 7). 

As one first looks out over the canyon he sees nothing but towers, 
pinnacles, many-colored layers of rock, and apparently bottomless 
depths. When he finally takes a position from which the thread- 



THE WESTERN STATES 149 

like stream below can be spied in the abyss, it seems almost impos- 
sible that so little water could have wrought such mighty havoc. 

The difficult path which leads to the bottom is seven miles long, 
and the trip down and back is a full day's journey; but without 
making it, one fails to appreciate fully the marvellous carving, 
sculpturing, and coloring. At the bottom the scene is entirely'' 
changed ; and, as one looks upward to see himself shut in by walls 
which seem to extend to the very heavens, his own littleness and 
the immensity of the work of Nature are wonderfully impressed 
upon him. 

For three limidred miles the river flows at the bottom of this deeply 
cut canyon, and hence serves as a very complete barrier to travellers. A 
person living on one side, where he could look across to the other side, 
ten miles away, would need to travel hundreds of miles to reach that 
side ; for there are no railways or roads leading across. 

Yosemite Valley. — This Avonderful valley, on the western slope of the 
Sierra Nevada Mountains, in California, presents very different views 
from those already described. Some of the most magnificent are formed 
by the Yosemite River, which pours over a precipice into the valley 
below. In one mighty leap the water descends 1500 feet, forming the 
Yosemite Palls, which are famed the world over. Below this are some 
cascades, then another fall of four hundred feet. 

Near the fall are seen the giant trees of the world, the largest of 
which is thirty-one feet in diameter. 

The Cities 

Cities in the Interior. — Large inland cities in the Western States 
are very few in number, the greatest being Denyee, the capital of 
Colorado. This city is located on the site of a small mining camp , 
but its growth is chiefly due to two facts: (1) the numerous mining 
towns among the mountains, and (2) the near presence of water, 
which has made irrigation on a large scale possible (p. 140). The 
first fact calls for an important trade centre somewhere in that 
region, and the second makes it possible to secure food. 

Denver has now become a railway and manufacturing centre, 
where ore is smelted, and machinery, flour, and cloth manufactured. 
It is also of importance as a health resort, for its altitude of over 
five thousand feet, and its dry climate, render it especially adapted 
to persons suffering from lung trouble. Colorado Springs, south 
of Denver and near Pike's Peak, is one of the leading health resorts 
in the country. 



150 



NORTH AMERICA 



Pueblo, a trade and inanufacturiDg centre, is situated where the 
Santa Fe line meets the Denver and Rio Grande Railway. In this 
city much ore is smelted, and iron goods are manufactured. It is its 
nearness to coal and iron ore which makes the latter industry possible. 

A number of interior cities, such as Salt Lake City, Ogden, and 
Butte, have already been mentioned (pp. 138 and 140). Name some 
others. None of the other inland towns in these states are very large, 
and whatever importance they have is due chiefly to mining, farming by 
irrigation, and grazing. 

Cities on the Pacific Slope. — The largest city in all these states 
is San Francisco (Fig. 132), located on a remarkably fine harbor 

which was formed by the 
sinking of the coast, as the 
harbor of New York City 
was formed. As in that 
case, too, there are other im- 
portant cities near at hand 
— the largest being Oak- 
land. Close to San Fran- 
cisco are the two most 
important educational insti- 
tutions in the Far West, — 
one, the University of Cali- 
fornia, at Berkeley (Fig. 
132), the other Leland Stan- 
ford Junior University, a 
short distance south of San 
Francisco. Farther south is San Jose, and to the northeast is 
Sacramento, the capital. 

The enormous crops of wheat, fruit, and wool in northern Cali- 
fornia suggest some of the occupations in these cities. What are 
they? Owing partly to an insufficient suppl}?" of coal, manufactur- 
ing is not so extensively developed as might be expected. One sees 
the effect of this lack of coal on the railways, for wood is a common 
fuel on the engines in Oregon and northern California, while in 
southern California steam is often generated by the use of petroleum, 
obtained from the oil wells of Los Angeles and vicinity. It is not 
surprising, then, that most of the wool raised in the West is shipped 
to the East to be manufactured into clotJiing, blankets, etc., even 
thousrh some of these articles must be sent to California to be sold. 




Fig. 153. 

The capitol building at Sacramento, one of the most 
beautiful state capitols in the country. 



THE WESTERN STATES 



151 



Nevertheless, San Francisco has foundries and machine shops, 
flour and woollen mills, sugar refineries, canning factories, breweries, 
and distilleries. The principal products sent away from the state 
are gold and silver, wine, fruit, wool, and grain, some going East by 
rail and some by water. This is the greatest shipping point on the 
Pacific coast ; and, as our trade with the Philippines, Hawaiian Is- 
lands, and other Pacific countries increases, we may expect San 
Francisco to grow even more rapidly. 

An interesting portion of this city is the section called " China- 
town." Chinese are very common in some parts of the West ; and 
since, for a long time, San Francisco was their chief landing place, 
many thousands have collected there, living huddled together in 
hovels, almost like rats. 

Owing to the fact that mountains rise almost from the sea, there 
are few harbors on the west coast ; and those that are found are at 
places where, in the course of mountain growth, the land has been 
lowered. The next important harbor south of San Francisco is the 
port of Los Angeles, twenty 
miles from Los Angeles 
itself. A still better one, 
however, is still farther 
south at San Diego. Esti- 
mate the distance of these 
points from San Francisco 
(Fig. 132). 

The first good harbor 
north of San Francisco is 
that of Portland (Fig. 
132) on a small tributary 
of the Columbia river. Like New Orleans, it is situated about a 
hundred miles up the river near the head of deep water navigation. 
Since harbors are lacking, most of the other important towns of 
Oregon are inland, and Portland has grown to be the chief shipping- 
point by water, and therefore the largest city. From this point 
wheat, wool, and lumber, the leading products of Oregon, are shipped 
in great quantities. Portland has extensive manufactories of woollen 
goods, flour, and furniture ; and Salem, the capital, also has large 
woollen and flour mills. 

Farther down the Columbia are several towns, the largest being 
Astoria, where, as elsewhere along the river, the salmon industry is 




Fig. 154. 
A street in Los Angeles. 



152 



NORTH AMERICA 




Fig. 155. 

Catching salmon in dip nets as they leap over the 
falls on their way to the waters where they 
spawn. 



developed. The salmon, like the shad of the East (p. 61), although 
spending its life in the ocean, passes up the rivers to spaion, or lay its eggs, 
in fresh Avater. In their passage the fish are caught in great numbers 

(Figs. 156 and 16(3), and some 
are shipped away in ice, even 
across the continent to Eastern 
cities. Others are sent to the 
numerous Canning factories along 
the lower Columbia where they 
are cooked and packed in cans 
(see also pp. 147-175). 

Washington, unlike Ore- 
gon, has many fine harbors. 
On two of these Seattle and 
Tacoma (Fig. 132) are situ- 
ated ; but Spokane, the third city in size, is located near some falls 
of the Spokane River in the eastern part of the state. Coal, lumber, 
grain, and hops are the principal exports. There is also extensive 
manufacture of flour at Spokane, and of lumber and furniture along 
the shores of Puget 
Sound, especially at 
Seattle and Tacoma. 
These goods are shipped 
away in large amounts, 
some going to the East- 
ern cities, some to China, 
Japan, the Philippines, 
Alaska, and other coun- 
tries. 

On Figure 201 notice 
what great lines of rail- 
way cross the continent 
to the Pacific coast, and 
in what cities they terminate. What about the number of railways 
on the Pacific coast compared with those on the Atlantic? 




Fig. 156. 

a wheel, with a net on it, which revolves in the current 
and lifts the salmon from the water as they swim 
past. 



QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

Review Questions and Topics. — (1) Tell how California became settled. 
(2) How did gold get into the streams ? (3) How did the prospectors obtain it ? 
(4) Describe the physiography : — the mountains and plateaus ; the volcanoes ; 
their effects. (5) Tell about the climate: — the aridity; the rainy Northwest; 
the deserts ; the effect of plateaus and mountains. (6) What minerals are found 



THE WESTERN STATES 153 

in the West? (7) Tell about the prospectors. (8) Describe hydraulic mining. 
(9) AVhat kind of gold mining is now most common? (10) Give the history of 
the Comstock Lode. (11) What effect did it have upon Nevada? (12) What 
state now produces most gold and silver? (13) Name and locate the principal 
mining towns in Colorado. (14) What must be done with the ore? Where is it 
done? (15) Name and locate the principal mining town in Montana. (16) In 
Arizona. (17) Where is copper found in these states? (18) Where is coal chiefly 
found? (19) Where are the forests? Why? (20) Describe lumbering near 
Tacoma. (21) What are the farm products of the sections that are well supplied 
with rain ? (22) State the plan for irrigating the land near Denver. (23) Tell 
how irrigation has influenced the settlement of the West. (24) Name some cities 
that have irrigation systems. (25) Tell about the Mormons. (26) Describe the 
fruit region of southern California : — the appearance of the country ; the climate ; 
the products; what is done with them; the cities; the importance of water. 

(27) Why is ranching carried on in the West? What animals are raised? 

(28) Tell about sheep ranching : — number of sheep ; cai'e given them ; shearing ; 
uses of the products. (29) Tell about the Indians of New Mexico and Arizona. 
(30) About the primitive customs of the Mexicans. (31) Describe the Yellow- 
stone Park : — location ; size ; springs and geysers ; the canyon. (32) Describe 
the Colorado canyon. (33) The Yosemite Park. (34) Name the principal inland 
cities, telling for what each is important. (35) What cities are on or near San 
Francisco Bay? For what important? (36) Tell about San Francisco. (37) Name 
the harbors south of San Francisco. (38) Describe the location and industries of 
Portland. (39) What is done at Salem? (40) Tell about the salmon industry. 
(41) Name the cities of Washington. For what is each important? 

RE\aEW BY States: Montana {Mont.). — (1) What industries are carried 
on in the eastern p)art? AVhy? (2) What industries in the western part? 

(3) Name the cities mentioned in Montana, and tell for what each is important. 

(4) What two large rivers drain this section ? (5) Through what states do they 
flow before reaching the Gulf? (6) Draw an outline map of the state; and, as 
each of the other states is studied, do the same for that. 

Wyoming (Wy.). — (7) What industries are cai-ried on in this state ? 
(8) What cities are mentioned? In what connection? (9) Find the Yellowstone 
Park, and tell for what it is noted. (10) On the maps showing principal grain- 
producing regions (Figs. 209 and 211), Wyoming is a state where very little is 
produced. Why so little there? 

Colorado (Col. or Colo.). — (11) Examine Figures 209 to 224 to see what is 
done in Colorado. (12) Give the reason why there is more water for irrigation 
in this state than in some of the others. (13) Trace the divide between the 
Pacific and Atlantic drainage, as it crosses Colorado. Trace it northward to 
Canada and southward to Mexico. (14) Name the cities in Colorado mentioned 
in the text, and tell for what each is important. (15) Find the population of 
Denver (Appendix, p. v). Compare it with the largest city in each of the other 
Western States, and also with New Orleans, Buffalo, and St. Louis. 

Neio Mexico (N.M.). — (\6) W^hat about the inhabitants? (17) What is 
said about the industries? (18) Find how large is the largest city (Appendix, 
J), iv). (19) Compare it with the largest city in Massachusetts. In Nevada. 

Arizona (Ariz.). — (20) Tell about the river which crosses the territory. 
(21) What city and industries are mentioned? (22) What minerals are obtained 
here? (23) How does the largest city compare in size with the largest in New 
Mexico? In Colorado? 



154 NORTH AMERICA 

Nevada (Nev.). — (24) For what was Nevada famous? (25) Find its present 
population (Appendix, p. iii). Why are there so few people? 

Utah. — (26) Tell why the Great Salt Lake is salt (see First Book, p. 55) . 
(27) What are the industries of this state? (28) What cities are mentioned? 
Tell about each. (29) Examine the maps. Figures 209 to 224, to see what prod- 
ucts come from Utah. 

Idaho (Ida.).-— (30) AVhat metals are obtained? (See Figs. 224 and 226.) 
(31) What great river drains Idaho? (32) AVhat mountain range forms the 
eastern boundary? 

Washington (Wash.). — (33) Compare the coast line with that of Oregon; of 
Maine. (34) Tell about the rainfall of this state. Compare it with Montana 
(Fig. 304). Why this difference? (35) What effect has the rainfall upon the 
industries? What are the principal industries ? (36) What cities are mentioned 
in the text ? Tell about each. 

Oregon (Ore.). — (37) What advantage do you see in the location of the larg- 
est city? (38) Compare it in size with Denver, New York, Boston, and New 
Orleans. (39) Examine the inaps (Figs. 209 to 224) to see what is produced in 
Oregon. (40) AVhat industries are mentioned in the text? (41) What cities are 
mentioned and in what connection? 

California (Cal.). — (42) What about the rainfall? (43) What rivers drain 
most of this state ? (44) Describe the relief. (45) Name the cities mentioned ; 
for what is each important ? (46) What industries in the state ? (47) What 
advantage do you see in the location of San Francisco ? (48) Compare its popu- 
lation with that of Boston, New Orleans, Denver, and Chicago. (49) AVhat 
caused the early growth of California? What effect has that had on the other 
W^estern States? (50) To whom did California belong before we obtained it? 

General. — (51) AVhich state has the largest population? (See Appendix, 
p. iii.) The smallest ? (52) Compare each with Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New 
York, and South Carolina. (53) Name the ten largest cities (Appendix, pp. iv-vii). 
Add their populations together, and compare the result with the ten largest in 
each of the other groups. (54) Which group of states has the most large cities ? 
AA'hich the least ? AVhat reasons can you give ? 

Suggestions. — (1) Read about the expedition of Lewis and Clark from St. 
Louis to the Pacific coast in 1803-1806. (2) What is the origin of the expression 
" to pan out " ? (3) Why do the heavier rains on the northern Pacific coast come 
in winter? (4) Mention several of the advantages and disadvantages of having 
no rain for several months at a time, as in southern California. (5) Make a col- 
lection of minerals for the school. (6) Hydraulic mining has been largely pro- 
hibited in many parts of the West. AVhy? (7) Should the ditch that is to 
irrigate a certain field skirt its upper or lower edge ? Why ? (8) Which is the 
more easily irrigated, neady level land, or land that is rough and hilly ? AVhy ? 
(9) Is southern California as liable to cold snaps as Florida? AVhy? (10) Make 
a list of articles made of wool. (11) Why have Arizona and New Mexico not be- 
come states? (12) Find out about the wild animals in Yellowstone National 
Park. (13) Write a story describing a visit to southern California. (14) Make a 
drawing of the Western States. 

GENERAL REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR THE UNITED STATES 

(1) Name the principal crops of the United States, and tell in which section 
each is raised. (Consult the figures, 209 to 231.) (2) Do the same for mineral pi'od- 



THE WESTERN STATES 155 

ucts. (3) For other raw products. (4) For manufactured articles. (5) Name 
the five largest cities in their order. (Appendix, p. iv.) For what is each im- 
portant? (6) State some ways in which the rainfall influences the occupations 
of the people. (7) The temperature. (8) State clearly the influence of the sink- 
ing of the coast. (9) Of the glacial period. (10) Of the coal period. (11) Of 
the absence of forests on the prairies. (12) Of the rich mineral deposits in the 
West. (13) In what ways have the Great Lakes been of value? (14) Name 
some of the cities that have been benefited by them. (15) In what ways have 
the Mississippi River and its two largest tributaries been of value? (16) State 
the natural advantages that have aided the growth of Boston, New York, Buf- 
falo, Philadelphia, Baltimore, New Orleans, Detroit, Chicago, St. Louis, and San 
Francisco. (17) Can you name some other cities that have also been influenced 
by their surroundings ? (18) Which is the largest state ? (Appendix, p. iii.) 
The second in size? The smallest? The next to the smallest? (19) Which 
state has the largest population ? (Appendix, p. iii.) The second largest ? The 
smallest? Next to the smallest? (20) Draw a map showing the states on the 
Atlantic coast. Also make a map of those along the Pacific coast ; along the Great 
Lakes ; the Mississippi River ; the Ohio ; the Missouri. (21) What states border 
Mexico ? Canada ? 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 



X. TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES OF THE UNITED 

STATES 

At the close of the Revolutionary War the United States con- 
sisted of thirteen small colonies along the Atlantic coast from Maine 
to Georgia. The United States claimed the land far into the 
wilderness, even to the distant Mississippi. Beyond this was 
French and Spanish territory, wliile the whole Mississippi Valley 
was occupied by Indians. By purchase and by war we have ac- 
quired all the land between the Atlantic and the Pacific which has 
been described in the previous pages ; but our control does not end 
with the boundaries of the United States proper. In 1867 we ac- 
quired Alaska, and in 1898 we came into possession of a number of 
islands, some of them on the other side of the globe. Since these 
lands form a part of the territory controlled by our government, a 
study of them properly comes at this point. 

Alaska 

Climate and Physiography. — For a long time Alaska, which is 
more than twice as large as Texas, belonged to Russia. That nation 
sold the territory to us for $7,200,000 ; but at the time many people 
considered it very unwise to pay so large a sum for so distant and 
desolate a land. However, it has already proved of great value, and 
has paid for itself many times over. 

Since the Arctic Circle extends across the northern part of 
Alaska, it will be seen that the climate must be very uninviting. 
The winters are long and cold, and the summers short and cool. A 
strip of coast land extends southward from the main peninsula of 
Alaska, and to this the prevailing westerly winds bring an abundance 
of rain and snow. Since these winds come from the ocean they 
also render the summer climate much less cool than in the northern 
part of the territory. In this portion is situated Sitka, the capital, 
where the governor of the territory lives. 

A large part of Alaska is mountainous, for the mountains of the 
United States and western Canada extend northward into this terri- 

156 




pj^' 




Fig. ir)8. 

Mt. St. Elias, Alaska, 18,100 feet high, and for a long time supposed to 
be the highest peak on the continent. 




Fri. loi). 
A whale ashore, and a whaling steamer lying off in deep water. 



biSBSi;: 



.s^ "~"' 



Fig. 1(30. 
Driving off a hunch of fur seal for slaughter. 



TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 157 

toiy. Among these mountains are the loftiest peaks of the continent, 
the highest yet discovered being Mt. McKinley, which is 20,464 feet 
high. Owing to the latitude, most of the mountains are snow- 
covered throughout the year (Fig. 158), and among them are innu- 
merable glaciers, many of which reach down to the sea. 

One of the largest glaciers now on the continent, known as the Midr 
Glacier is located in Alaska not far north of Sitka. It is so wonderful 
and beautiful that many tourists visit it every year. The long peninsula 
and the chain of Aleutian Islands vyhich form the southern boundary 
of Bering Sea are really a growing mountain chain 1600 miles in length. 
All together there are 57 volcanoes in this chain, a,nd it was here, in 1795, 
that a new volcano suddenly broke forth, building a lofty cone where 
previously ships were able to sail. 

Fishing. — Among the resources of Alaska, as in the case of 
other far northern lands, those of the sea are especially important 
(p. 17). In the shallow waters near the coast both cod and halibut 
abound, while immense numbers of salmon run up the rivers every 
summer, as they do in northern United States and Canada (pp. 151 
and 174). The fishing industrj- is only partly developed, chiefly 
because of the great distance from a profitable market ; but the 
waters of the Alaskan coast form an important fishing reserve for 
the future. 

Whaling. — Every year steamers, specially built for the purpose, ven- 
ture through Bering Strait into the Arctic Ocean in search of the whale. 
It is a hazardous occupation, and but few ships are now engaged in it. 
They are obliged to push their way into the Jloe ice (Fig. 265), in which 
they are in danger of being imprisoned and held firmly through the 
winter. 

A whale (Fig. 159), which is sometimes over a hundred feet long, is 
really a land animal which has taken up life in the sea, as seals and wal- 
ruses have. Therefore, unlike the true fishes, which secure air from the 
water by means of gills, the whale must now and then rise to the surface 
for air. It is when rising to breath, or " blow," that the huge creatures 
are harpooned. 

Sealing. — In the Arctic are found many different kinds of seal. 
One of tliese, the fur seal, which lives in Bering Sea, is of great 
value because of its soft fur, which is much used for winter cloaks. 
During the greater part of the year the fur seals swim in the 
sea in search of food ; but in the spring, during the breeding 
season, they resort to the Pribilof Islands. The United States 
government prohibits all persons from killing them except one 



158 



NORTH AMERICA 



company, which pays a special tax for the privilege of securing a 
certain number each year. At the proper season the men select a 

number of males, — for 




Fig. lUl. 

Fui- seals among the rocks near the coast of one of the 
Pribilof Islands. 



a law forbids the tak- 
ing of the females, — 
and drive them off 
for slaughter, much as 
sheep would be driven. 
Mining. — Wh ile 
there is some oppor- 
tunity for farming in 
southern Alaska, and 
the great tracts of forest 
land may be the seat of 
an important lumbering 
industry in the future, at present the most noted industry of Alaska 
is gold mining. There are extensive deposits of gold, copper, coal, 
and other minerals ; but they are so difficult to reach that there has 
been little development of any of these except the first. A short 
distance north of Sitka, at Juneau, there are some very profitable 
gold mines ; and elsewhere in the territory gold mining is also 
carried on. 

Recently, Alaska and the neighboring Klondike region, just 
across the line in Canada, have attracted attention because of the 
discovery of rich de- 
posits of gold-bearing 
gravels, somewhat 
like those found in 
California in 18-i8. 
Although a bleak, 
desolate region, far 
in the interior and 
difficult of access, 
men have rushed 
there, as years ago 
they hurried to Cali- 
fornia. Some have 
gone overland across ^'^^- 162. 

the mountain IDasses Miners fording the icy waters of an Alaskan river, on the way 
■ 1 poA **^ *^® Klondike. Two of them are harnessed in a wagon 

(Jb Ig. 162) ; others containing their supplies. 







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Fig. 164 (Upper). 
Moro Castle, at the entrance to Havana harbor. 

Fig. 165 (Lower). 
A home in Cuba. 



TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 159 

have travelled an easier route by water, taking a steamer to the 
mouth of the Yukon River, one of the longest rivers on the conti- 
nent. There they transferred to river boats; but since the Yukon 
is frozen over during most of the year, this journey can be made 
only in summer. 

In the scramble for gold many persons have endured terrible hardships. 
Most of them have returned with little of the precious metal, but some 
have brought back fortunes. Good-sized towns have grown up as a result 
of the inrush of people, the largest being Dawson City, Canada, and 
Circle City in Alaska, just south of the Arctic Circle. Another city that 
grew in a single season is Nome City. 

Cuba and Porto Rico 

While the United States has within recent years secured posses- 
sion of bleak northern lands, it has still more recently come into 
control of some warm tropical islands. As a result of the war of 
1898, Porto Rico was ceded to the United States, and Cuba was given 
its independence under the general guidance of the United States. 

Physiography and Climate. — Among the West Indies (p. 191) 
the largest island is Cuba, which is nearly as large as Pennsylvania, 
although much longer and narrower. The next in size is Haiti, and 
of the others the only two of much importance are Jamaica and Porto 
Rico, the latter being three-fourths the size of Connecticut. Cuba, 
Haiti, and Porto Rico form a portion of a single mountain chain, 
highest in Haiti, though reaching an elevation of 8600 feet in Cuba. 

While there are tree-covered mountain ranges in each of the 
islands, a large portion of Cuba and Porto Rico has been cleared 
and cultivated. This is especially true of Porto Rico, which is really 
an island of farms. Crops grow luxuriantly, partly because of the 
excellent soil, formed by the decay of the rocks, and partly because 
of the favorable climate. 

The islands are entirely within the tropical zone, so tliat their 
temperature throughout the year is high ; and on the lowlands neither 
snow nor frost are known. They receive an abundance of rain, es- 
pecially upon the northeastern or windward slopes, where the clamp 
winds which blow from the northeast first reach the land. The 
summer is the rainiest season, for then these winds blow with 
greater strength and steadiness. 

Forests and Minerals. — When first settled, the West Indies were cov- 
ered by a dense tropical forest. Much of this has been cleared away for 



160 



NOBTH AMERICA 



purposes of farming; but some of the woods still remain, especially among 
the higher mountains. In Cuba, for instance, there is still much valuable 
timber, such as mahogany, ebony, and fustic, which produces a valuable 
yellow dye. 

Besides these raw products of the soil, there is considerable mineral 
wealth in Cuba. Copper is found there, and also iron, the latter having 
been mined for a long time in the neighborhood of Santiago. 

Agriculture. — However, it is agriculture that forms the chief 
industry of the Cubans and Porto Ricans. As in all the West 
Indies, the principal crop is sugar-cane (Fig. 204), which grows well 
in the rich soil and the warm, rainy climate. Although much sugar 
is raised, the industry has not proved ver}^ profitable because of the 
primitive methods employed and the absence of a good market. Now 
that the United States has come into closer relation with these islands 
great improvement should take place. 

Sugar production is carried on in Cuba much as it is in Louisiana 
(p. 89). After the cane is cut, the sap is extracted and reduced 

to brown sugar in 
sugar houses, and 
then sent away to 
be manufactured into 
white sugar. Two 
of the products of 
the sugar plantations 
are molasses, and 
rum, which is made 
of molasses. 

A second impor- 
tant crop is tobacco, 
for which Cuba is 
especially noted. 
There is one district, on the western end of the island, where the 
rich, limy soil and the climate are peculiarly suited to the growth 
of the best cjuality of tobacco. At Havana and other places it 
is manufactured into cigars, which bring high prices — the Havana 
cigar being considered the best that is made. What has been said 
about Key West in Florida? 

Upon the hill-slopes much coffee is produced, and some tea and cocoa. 
The coffee plant not only requires a good soil, but must be grown in the 
shade of trees. Spices, including nutmeg, cinnamon, and ginger, are 





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Fig. 166. 
A Cuban ox team. 



TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 



161 



products of the West Indies, also pepper, cardamom, vanilla, and pimento 
or allspice. Such fruits as bananas, oranges, limes, pineapples, and cocoa- 
nuts are also produced ; but, because of the poor market, in small quantities. 
In the future much more attention will doubt- 
less be paid to fruit raising. Indeed, both 
Cuba and Porto Eico will probably now be- 
come not only winter gardens, supplying fruit 
and vegetables to the United States, but also 
important winter resorts. 




Fig. 167. 
A Cuban boat. 



The United States has been able to 
raise almost all products of the soil that 
we have required, with the exception of 
the tropical and semi-tropical crops, such 
as tea, rice, coffee, sugar, spices, and trop- 
ical fruits ; and our newly acquired islands 
are apable of supplying even these. 

The Inhabitants. — Portions of Cuba and Porto Rico are densely 
populated, although in Cuba's war with Spain thousands upon thou- 
sands of the inhabitants were killed in battle or starved to death. 
Property has been destroyed, and the island devastated to such an 
extent that it will be many years before a full tide of prosperitj^ 
returns. 

Many of the natives are of mixed blood. The aborigines did not 
prove good slaves to their Spanish conquerors, and negro slaves 
were brought from Africa. Therefore, while pure-blooded Span- 
iards are numerous, many of the inhabitants of Cuba and Porto 
Rico are negroes, either full blooded or half-breeds. The Spanish 
have kept these natives very poor and densely ignorant ; but they 
are capable of advancement under proper guidance, and this, it is 
hoped, they will receive from the United States. 

Cities. — Owing largely to an entire lack of coal and to the 
policy of the Spaniards, there has been very little manufacturing ; 
but nevertheless there are several important cities, principally along 
the coast, at points where there are remarkably fine harbors. The 
largest of these is Havana in Cuba, a city of 235,000 inhabitants, 
and for a long time the centre of the Spanish dominion in America. 
Another large city in Cuba is Santiago de Cuba, where the Span- 
ish ships were sunk in 1898 (see map. Fig. 163). A third important 
city, with an excellent harbor, is Matajstzas. 
Railway lines connect some of these cities and also reach out into 



162 



JSrOBTH A 31 ERIC A 



the agricultural districts, thus serving to bring the crops to these 
ports for shipment. However, many of the towns are not connected 

by rail ; and since there 
are few good wagon 
roads, they have al- 
most no communica- 
tion with the outside 
world, except by boat. 
The conditions in 
Porto Rico are nearly 
the same as in Cuba, 
though it is less wood- 
ed than Cuba and 
more completely culti- 
vated. Along the 
lower sections, near the coast, sugar and tobacco are raised ; the low 
mountains produce excellent coffee, one of the most important pro- 
ducts of the island ; and the slopes between these two sections are 
largely occupied by herds of cattle. As in Cuba, there are a number 
of coastal cities, the largest being Ponce and San Juan, the capital. 




Fig. 168. 
The harbor of Havana. 



The Hawaiian Islands (Fig. 172) 

The Volcanoes. — Far out in the mid-Pacific, not quite a third 
of the distance from the Pacific coast to the Philippine Islands, is 
a mountain chain fifteen hundred miles long, most of which lies 
beneath the ocean. From this long, submarine ridge there rise sev- 




FiG. 169. 
Lake of liquid lava in one of the craters of the Hawaiian volcanoes. 



TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 



163 



era! volcanic peaks, forming a chain of islands, known as the Sand- 
wich or Hawaiian Islands. The largest is Hawaii, which is nearly 
as large as Connecticut. 

Each of the islands is composed chiefly of lava which has been 
erupted from within the earth. T^vo of the large Hawaiian volca- 
noes are still active, the largest, Mauna Loa, extending nearly four- 
teen thousand feet above the sea. From the coast the sea bottom 
descends so rapidly that, within a few miles of the shore, a depth of 
eighteen thousand feet is found. Therefore, if the water should be 
removed, a mountain peak would be revealed rising nearly thirty- 
two thousand feet above its base — a loftier mountain than any 
known on the land. 

Climate. — Tlie latitude of the Hawaiian Islands (Fig. 511) is 
about the same as that of Cuba and Porto Rico. Being in the midst 
of the broad Pacific, and 
therefore surrounded by 
warm ocean water, the cli- 
mate near sea level is 
warm and wonderfully 
equable. From day to 
night, and even from sum- 
mer to winter, the ther- 
mometer varies only a few 
degrees. As in the West 
Indies, the northeast Avinds 
blow steadily and bring an 
abundance of rain to the windward northeastern slopes. The oppo- 
site or leeward slopes are very much drier, and in places even arid. 

Industries. — The Hawaiian Islanders are an intelligent race, 
resembling the natives of other Pacific islands. Since white men 
brought in new methods of agriculture, the larger islands have 
become fairly productive, the principal crop being sugar. Coffee, 
tropical fruits, and rice (Fig. 171) are other products, the last 
being cultivated by the Chinese, who- make up a large part of the 
foreign population. There are also many Japanese, Portuguese, 
and Americans. The chief market has been the United States, 
especially San Francisco. In fact, these islands formed one of the 
principal sources of food supply for the early Calif ornian miners. 
The white men's interests in the Hawaiian Islands led to a revolu- 
tion some years ago, by which these men took control of affairs from 




Fig. 170. 
Building a grass hut in the Hawaiian Islands. 



164 



NOETH AMERICA 



the native queen, set up an independent government, and offered 

themselves to the United States as a territory. After some delay 

this offer was accepted. 

While some of the inhabitants are engaged in agriculture, large 

numbers are gathered in small villages along the seacoast. There 

are only two cities, Hono- 
lulu on the island of Oahu, 
and HiLO, on Hawaii. 

The Hawaiian Islands as 
a Coaling Station. — During 
the war with Spain the Ha- 
waiian Islands were of import- 
ance to the United States as a 
coaling station for ships bound 
to the Philippine Islands. 
The distance from San Fran- 
cisco to the Philippines is 
somewhat more than seven 
thousand miles. If we wish to send a warship there from the Pacific coast, 
it is quite necessary that it should find a place on the way at which it 
could obtain coal. Such a ship might carry perhaps eight hundred tons 
of coal ; but as it may burn from sixty to seventy tons a day, this would 
last less than two weeks, while the journey across would require more 
than three weeks. Therefore the government needs a place where it 
can store large quantities of coal, perhaps as much as from ten to twenty- 
five thousand tons, to be used in case of need. All large naval powers 
need coaling stations in various parts of the ocean. Great Britain, the 
greatest power upon the sea, has them scattered all over the world. 




Fig. 171. 
Planting rice in the Hawaiian Islands. 



Guam and Samoa 

Por a number of years the United States, Germany, and England had 
control over the Samoan Islands (Pig. 172) ; but this arrangement did not 
prove satisfactory, and now Tutuila, one of the islands, is owned by the 
United States. This tiny island is of little value to us except for the 
coaling station at the harbor of Pago Pago (Pig. 172). The natives are of 
the same race as those of the other islands of the open Pacific. They are 
splendidly developed physically, and manage a boat and swim so well that 
they are almost as much at home in the water as on land. The principal 
products are cocoanuts and cotton, and the chief city is Apia, on Upolu, 
which belongs to Germany. 

In consequence of the war with Spain, we obtained the island of Guam 
(Figs. 172 and 511), one of the Ladrones or Robbers' Islands, some distance 
east of the Philippines. These islands, the loftiest peaks of a submarine 



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Fig. 173 (Upper). 
A Philippine house. Notice that it is built so as to raise it above the damp ground. 

Fig. 174 (Lower). 
Natives and a water buffalo working in a sugar-cane field. 



TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 



165 



mountain chain, were iirst seen by Magellan, wlio was later killed by the 
natives of the Philippines. Guam, the largest of the Ladrones, reaches 
an elevation of from fifteen to eighteen hundred feet above the sea; but 
it is so small, and so far away, that it also is of little service to us except 
as a coaling station for vessels. 



The Philippine Islands 

purchased pkom spain in 1898 for f20,000,000 

Physiography. — This group of islands, or archipelago, consists of 
several thousand separate islands, many of which are very small. 
The largest, Luzon, is about the size of Kentucky, and the second, 
Mindanao, is almost as large. Like the West Indies and the 
Hawaiian Islands, the Philippines are portions of mountain chains 
in the sea. They form part of a still greater chain, reaching north- 
ward to the Japanese Islands and beyond. 

Throughout the archipelago earthquakes are common and sometimes 
very destructive to property and to life ; for instance, the earthquake of 
1863 destroyed a large part of Manila. The earth is in an almost constant 
state of tremor, though most of the shocks are so slight that they are 
detected only by the aid of delicate instruments. In addition to earth- 
quakes, there have at times been destructive volcanic eruptions. Some of 
the volcanic cones of 
the Philippines reach 
to a height of 8000 to 
10,000 feet. 

While parts of the 
islands are mountain- 
bus and still covered by 
forests, there are many 
valleys that have been 
cleared for farming. In 
these the soil is usually 
deep and fertile, being 
formed by the decay of 
lavas, limestones, and 
other rocks rich in 
plant food. 

Since none of the 
islands are very large, 
there can of course be no great rivers ; but many of them are so deep 
near their mouths that small steamboats are able to navigate the lower 
portions of all of the larger streams. Near the volcanoes there are 
lakes formed by the lava damming up the streams. 




Fig. 175. 
Philippine boats, really logs with the centre dug out. 



166 



NORTE AMERICA 



Climate. — Besides earthquakes and volcanoes, the Philippines 
are visited by terrific tropical storms or hurricanes which are called 
typlioons. Commencing in the heated belt near the equator, they 
develop intense energy, and move slowly off into the temperate 
latitudes. They are accompanied by a terrific downpour of rain and 
by winds so violent that houses are torn to pieces, and trees dragged 
out by their roots. During these storms much property is destroyed, 
and many lives are often lost. 

As in the West Indies, the climate of the Philippines is that of 
the tropics — always warm, and sometimes very hot, especially at a 
distance from the sea. They have a heavy rainfall, the year being 
divided into the dry and rainy seasons. The former comes during 
the winter months, the latter in the summer. The dry period 
lasts while the Avinds blow from the northeast, and then the fields 
often become parched and cracked, and the roads very dusty. In 
the summer, however, the winds change to the southeast, and as they 
blow from the warm, humid equatorial belt, they deluge the islands 
with rain to such an extent that much of the country becomes a swamp, 
and travel is almost impossible. The showers are local ; and while a 
heavy downpour occurs in one place, a short distance away on the 
leeward slopes there may be no rain. 



The natives have domesticated a native wild animal, the water buffalo 
(Fig. 176), which is so accustomed to the mud that it may be driven 

about during the wet 
season. This draft ani- 
mal is of great use, espe- 
cially in the rice fields, 
which are kept wet dur- 
ing the growing season. 
The buffalo prefers wet 
walking to dry, and, in 
fact, must have a daily 
plunge in the mud and 
water. 




Fig. 176. 
Philippine natives and the domesticated buffalo. 



Because of this 
damp climate, the 
Philippine houses are 
so built that the lower story is used for storage, as a cellar is in our 
country. This raises the inhabited part of the house above the 
dam J) ground (Fig. 173). 



TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 167 

Resources and Industries. — Owing to the tropical warmth and 
dampness and to the excellent soil, the uncultivated parts of the 
islands are covered with a dense tropical forest, containing many 
valuable woods. As in other tropical forests, there are immense 
numbers of animals, especially insects, serpents, and beautiful birds. 
Among the serpents are the huge python and the deadly cobra di 
capello. There are also deer, apes, wild hogs, wild buffalo, huge 
bats, and man-eating crocodiles. 

The inhabitants of the Philippines number from eight to ten 
millions, about one-half of whom are civilized ; but there are still 
many savages on some of the islands, especially in the dense forests. 
Two very different races occupy the islands, — the aborigines and 
the Malays. The former, a race of small, dark-skinned savages, are 
called Negritos., a Spanish word meaning little negroes. They have 
been gradually forced to retreat to the forests by the more powerful 
and intelligent Malays. Besides the Negritos, the various tribes of 
Malays, and the half-breeds, many Chinese traders and Spaniards 
live on the islands. 

Under the influence of the Spaniards, the more civilized tribes, whom 
Magellan found in a savage state, have cleared the land and have reached 
a fairly high grade of civilization. Their wants are few, and very little 
work suffices to keep them supplied with what they need. Cocoanuts and 
bananas are easily obtained, and rice, yams, and other plant foods may be 
raised with very little effort. There is, therefore, no special reason for work- 
ing hard ; and, in fact, in that climate hard work is almost impossible. 

The riches of the forest are scarcely utilized at all. Among the valu- 
able woods are ebony, the rubber tree from which gutta percha is obtained, 
and a palm from the sap of which alcohol may be made. Cinnamon, cloves, 
and pepper also grow there. 

The mineral resources appear to be extensive, although almost entirely 
undeveloped, since the Spaniards never encouraged mining there. Gold 
is known to exist in Luzon, and silver, coal, petroleum, marble, and sulphur 
also occur. 

Aside from plant products consumed at home, some cocoa, coffee, 
sugar (Fig. 174), and tobacco are raised for export, the latter being 
manufactured into cigars at Manila. This is almost the sole 
manufacturing of importance, and the inhabitants depend upon 
Europe and America for all but the very simplest materials, which 
they themselves produce. 

Hemp is the best-known export of these islands, which supply 
the world with the fibre used in making the better grades of Manila 



168 



NORTH AMERICA 



rope. Hemp is made from the fibre of a wild plantain, which so 
closely resembles the banana that an inexperienced person cannot 
easily tell the two apart. In order to obtain the fibre, the plant is 
cut and allowed to wilt for a short time, then drawn between a 
block of wood and a knife, in order to scrape the pulp away. The 
fibre is spread for several hours in the sun to dry, and then pressed 
into bales for shipping. Since the work is crudely done by natives, 
without the aid of machinery, about 40 per cent of the fibre is wasted. 

The castor bean grows wild on many of the islands, and its oil is 
extracted for many local purposes. Cocoanut palms also flourish, and 
great rafts of cocoanuts are shipped down the rivers to the sea. From 
this nut an oil is made that is used in lamps and sometimes in the manu- 
facture of a substitute for lard. Much of the dried meat of the nut, called 

copra, is shipped to Europe to 




Fig. 177. 

A Philippine lumber yard, where bamboo is the lum- 
ber. Compare this with Figures 40 and 140. 



be used in soap making. 

One of the most remark- 
able plants of the island is 
the rattan, which is put by the 
natives to a thousand uses, 
such as making ropes, houses, 
canoes, frames, carts, beds, and 
chairs. Many of the natives 
make a living by splitting and 
marketing the cane. The 
bamboo is also of great value, 
being considered indispensable 
by the natives (Fig. 177). This 
plant grows from one inch to 
eighteen inches in diameter, 
and from five to seventy feet in height. It is used in making the frames, 
sides, and even the roofs of houses, and also rafts, boats, agricultural im- 
plements, bows, bowstrings, arrows, spoons, forks, and many other articles. 

Under Spanish rule the people of the Philij^pines were greatly 
oppressed, and the industries were only partly developed. Large 
portions of the islands were left in a wild state ; and even in the 
best-settled regions little attempt was made to develop the resources. 
The islands are able to produce not only quantities of sugar, rice, 
tobacco, coffee, and cocoa, but also much more hemp than at present. 
What has been said about the valuable forest and mineral products? 

There is a promising future in the proper development of all the 
resources of these islands, and the civilized natives are able to help 
in the work. Many of them are educated and cultivated, living in 



TEBBITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 169 

excellent homes and surrounded by luxuries. In religion, most of 
the inhabitants belong to the Roman Catholic faith, which was 
early introduced by the Spaniards. However, the natives of the 
Sulu Islands, called Moros, are Mohammedans. These Moros are 
ruled by a Sultan under the general guidance of the United States. 

Cities. — In the Philippine group there are many cities having a 
population of more than ten thousand, and a number have as many 
inhabitants as Gloucester, Massachusetts, Jacksonville, Florida, or 
Butte, Montana. However, there is at present only one city of great 
importance in the archipelago, namely, Manila, on the island of 
Luzon, a city nearly as large as St. Paul. It is situated upon an 
excellent harbor, and was for a long time the centre of the Span- 
ish government in the Philippines. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

Alaska: Questions. — (1) From whom was Alaska obtained? How? 
(2) Describe the climate. (3) Name and locate the capital. (4) What are the 
surface features? (5) Locate the Muir Glacier. (6) Tell about the volcanoes. 
(7) What kinds of Ush are found ? (8) Describe Whaling. What valuable prod- 
ucts are obtained ? (9) Tell about the seals : — where found ; habits ; efforts to 
protect them; method of killing; their value. (10) Describe mining in Alaska: — 
minerals found ; location of the gold mines ; cities that have grown up ; the rush 
of gold seekers ; the change that they have brought about. 

Suggestions. — (11) Collect some whalebone. (12) Collect pictures of 
Alaska. (13) Find out what people thought when the purchase of Alaska was 
being considered. (14) Try to find some one who has been in Alaska, and have 
him tell you about the country. (15) How does the area of Alaska compare with 
that of the United States proper? With your own state? (See Appendix, 
pp. i. and iii.) (16) Measure the length of the Yukon, and compare it with the 
Mackenzie and the Mississippi. (17) Draw an outline map of Alaska. 

Cuba and Porto Rico: Questions. — (18) Name the principal islands of the 
West Indies. (19) Tell about their relief; their climate. (20) What is the reason 
for the heavy rains of summer ? (21) What about the forests and their peculiar 
products? the minerals? (22) Name the principal farm products, and tell about 
each. (23) Tell about the inhabitants. (24) Why so little manufacturing? 
(2.5) Name and locate the chief cities in Cuba and Porto Rico. 

Suggestions. — (26) Estimate the length and the average breadth of Cuba. 
(27) How do its two leading cities compare in size with the two largest in Penn- 
sylvania? (Appendix, pp. v. and vi.) (28) What products of Cuba and Porto Rico 
are also raised in the United States ? Where ? (29) State some advantage that Cuba 
enjoys over Louisiana in the production of sugar. (30) In what respects are the 
inhabitants similar to those of Mexico? (31) How is our control of these islands 
liable to prove of benefit to us? To the islands themselves? (32) Make a sketch 
map of Cuba and Porto Rico. 

The Hawaiian Islands : Questions. — (33) Where are the islands? (34) How 
have they been formed? (35) Tell about the volcanoes. (36) About the climate. 



170 ' NORTH AMERICA 

(37) Name the leading products. (38) The principal cities. (39) How did the 
islands come into our possession? (40) Of what use ai-e they to us? 

Suggestions. — (41) Why should you expect much the same products in the 
Hawaiian Islands as in Cuba? (42) Why is not the summer very hot in this 
tropical region ? (43) What city on the eastern coast should be associated with 
San Francisco as important for refining sugar? (44) Explain the presence of 
many Chinese and Japanese in these islands. 

The Philippine Islands : Questions. — (45) Name the two largest islands. 
(46) How have the islands been formed? (47) Tell about the earthquakes. The 
soil. The rivers. (48) About the typhoons, and the dry and rainy seasons. 
(49) What about Philippine houses? Draft animals? (50) Tell about the for- 
ests and wild animals. (51) About the native inhabitants. (52) About the fai'm 
products. (53) About the manufacturing. (54) What are the future prospects 
of the islands? (55) Locate the principal city. 

Suggestions. — (56) Compare 'the latitude of the islands with that of the 
West Indies and of the Hawaiian Islands. (57) In what other places thus far 
studied have volcanoes abounded? (58) Collect pictures of scenes in the Philip- 
pines. (59) Obtain a piece of Manila hemp rope for the school collection ; also a 
piece of bamboo and of rattan. (60) Tell about Dewey's capture of Manila. 
(61) Make a sketch map of the islands. 

General Questions. — (62) Name the dependencies of the United States. 
(63) AValk toward each. (64) Name the principal products of each. (65) In 
what zones do they lie ? (66) How did we obtain each ? 

For References, see Teacher's Book. .^^" 




Fig. 178. 
Newfoundland sealers killing seals on the floe ice off the coast of Labrador. 




Fig. 171). 
A Greenland Eskimo kayak. 




Fig. 180. 
A group of Eskimo children in Greenland. 




Fig. 181. 



Map Questions.— (1) Trace the boundary line between United States and Canac 
Which part of it is natural boundary ? (2) Which states border on Canada ? (3) Why; 
there so many lakes in the Dominion? (4) Name the seven largest (including the Gr( 
Lakes). (5) Name the five largest rivers; tell in which direction each flows and where 




empties. (6) AVhere are the large cities ? (7) What are the names of the largest? (8) Can 
you see any reasons for their location ? (9) Trace the Arctic Circle across Canada. (10) Com- 
pare the latitude of Labrador with that of England (Fig. 511). (11) Draw an outline map 
of Canada, inserting the important rivers, lakes, and cities. 




Fig. 182. 
Map showing the location of Montreal and Quebec. 




Fig. 183. 
A view of Montreal from the mountain back of the city — the St. Lawrence in the distance. 






: XI. COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 
Canada and Newfoundland 

As we have learned, the northwestern extremity of North Amer- 
ica is in possession of the United States ; but ahnost all of the 
remaining land north of our country belongs to Canada. 

History. — While the British were founding the thirteen colonies, 
the French occupied the coast of eastern Canada and made settle- 
ments along the St. Lawrence valley, as at Quebec and Montreal. 
Even now four out of every five persons in the Province of Quebec 
speak French as their mother-tongue. The French and English were 
often at war ; but finally England, aided by her colonies, acquired 
control of all the French possessions north of the United States, 
except the small islands of Miquelon and St. Pierre., which are still 
retained by the French as fishing stations. 

After the Revolutionary War, Canada still remained in the pos- 
session of Great Britain. There were at first several colonies, or 
provinces., with separate governments, though all were under the con- 
trol of Great Britain ; but in 1867 a union was formed called the 
Dominion of Canada. Each of the seven provinces — Nova Scotia, 
Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, 
and British Columbia — now has a government of its own, as our 
states have ; but by their union they also have a central government 
with the capital at Ottaava, which corresponds to our capital at 
Washington. 

Besides these provinces, there are four organized territories : Assini- 
boia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Athabasca ; and also a number of 
unorganized territories, or territories without a regularly organized govern- 
ment. Most of the latter are practically a wilderness and of little impor- 
tance at present. Their names will be found on the map (Fig. 181). 

Newfoundland has refused to join this federation, so that, while 
still a province of Great Britain, it has no connection with Canada. 
Under the government of Newfoundland is [included, not only the island, 
but also the east coast of Labrador. 

171 



172 



NORTH AMERICA 



As in the case of the United States, the early settlements in Canada 
were made in the east, though westward migration has now opened up 
not merely the interior, but even the mountainous western part. At 
present, the population is over five million, more than one-fourth of whom 
are French. 

Physiography and Climate. — The climate of southern Canada is 
similar to that of northern United States, though of course slightly 
cooler. Its physiography is nearly the same also ; and since the 
glacier, which spread over northeastern United States, had its origin 
in Canada, the effects are found there, as here. Lakes, falls, and 
rapids abound, and the soil is made of glacial drift. 

The surface of eastern Canada is much like the surface of New 
England ; and, as in New England, there is much beautiful scenery. 

That section of Canada 
which lies north of Ohio 
and New York is more 
level, like those states, 
and it is the most im- 
portant farming region 
in the Dominion. Farther 
west, north of Dakota 
and Montana, are broad 
plains (Fig. 188), arid in 
the western part, and 
increasing in elevation to 
the very base of the 
Rocky Mountains. After 
crossing these plains, the 
Canadian Pacific Railway, which extends from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific coast, follows the valleys among the mountains, and climbs 
to the passes amidst canyons, glaciers, and snow-capped peaks (Fig. 
184). Name the mountains (Fig. 181). The scenery of this region 
is wonderfully grand and picturesque, and the railway passes 
through the midst of it. A portion of this wonderland has been 
set aside as a national park by the Canadian government. 

The headwaters of the Yukon River, mentioned under Alaska (p. 159), 
are in Canada ; and farther east than this is the Mackenzie River, one of 
the largest on the continent. It is 2000 miles long. What three large 
lakes drain into the Mackenzie ? Why is that river of little use for navi- 
gation ? What other large Canadian rivers drain into northern waters ? 




Fig. 18i. 

A view among the mountains of British Columbia, 
through which tlie Canadian Pacific passes. 



COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 



173 



How would they be more useful if tliey drained southward, as the Missis- 
sippi does ? 

Canada shares with the United States the privileges of navigation 
on all the Great Lakes, with one exception. Which is it ? In addi- 
tion to these great waterways, the lower St. Lawrence is entirely in 
Canada ; but on account of the severe winters this is not so great an 
advantage as might at first appear. Why ? 

There are numerous rapids in the St. Lawrence, over which vessels 
cannot pass : but large ship canals have been built around these. 
Now, therefore, all but the large ocean steamers are able to go from 
the open ocean to the western part of Lake Superior, a distance of 
twenty-four hundred miles. In this respect the Canadian route has 
a great advantage over the Erie Canal route, upon which only small 
canal boats can go. However, there is a movement on foot to deepen 
the Erie Canal so that lake vessels can pass through it also. 

Although southern Canada closely resembles the United States in 
climate and physiography, toward the north the country rapidly grows 
colder, until, in the extreme northern portion, the climate is frigid. 
There the sea is frozen over in winter, and in summer it is covered with 
floating ice (Figs. 265 and 266). Even 
in midsummer large patches of snow 
are seen upon the land. 

Lumbering. — The forests which 
cover northern Maine, New Hamp- 
shire, and Vermont extend into 
the hilly and mountainous section 
of New Brunswick and southern 
Quebec. In fact, from there west- 
ward to the Pacific, sweeping north- 
ward around the vast plains of 
Manitoba, this forest tract is from 
two to three hundred miles wide, 
and is estimated to include fully a 
million square miles. In the east 
the principal trees are spruce, bal- 
sam fir, pines, and maples, while in the west are spruces, mammoth 
cedars, sometimes sixty feet in circumference, and the Douglas fir, 
which in some instances attains a height of three hundred feet. 
This forest is so nearly in its primitive state that there are few 
parts of the continent where the hunting for large game is so good. 




Fig. 185. 

A winter scene in the woods of New 

Brunswick. 



174 



NORTH AMERICA 



Lumbering is carried on in much the same manner as in the United 
States (pp. 143 and 115). In the east the principal river down which the 
logs are floated to the sea is the St. John, upon which are situated Frede- 
RicTON", the capital of New Brunswick, and St. John, the largest city in 
that province. In these two cities the logs are transformed into wood 
pulp and lumber. Immense quantities are shipped every year from the 
seaport of St. John. 

At present the woods ol' Canada are one of its greatest sources of 
wealth ; the lumbering industry is so important that there are hun- 
dreds of sawmills at the rapids on the streams, and even in the great 
cities. Among the latter, Ottawa, Toronto, and Montreal are 
important, especially 






Wr*+— 




Fig. 186. 

Boats setting nets to catch salmon off the coast of British 
Columbia. 



in the manufacture of 
lumber into such arti- 
cles as doors, blinds, 
barrels, and furniture. 
Fishing. — It was 
the excellent fishino' 
off the eastern coast of 
Canada that first at- 
tracted the French to 
America, and fishing is 
still an important industry in Canada. Fully fifty thousand people 
in Newfoundland and the eastern provinces, especially Nova Scotia 
and Prince Edward Island, are engaged in cod-fishing. One of the 
best fishing ports is Yarmouth in Nova Scotia, although a great deal 

of fishing is carried on 
from Halifax, Nova 
Scotia, St. John's, 
Newfoundland, and 
many other places. 
Inland fishing is also 
i m p o r t a n t, for the 
streams and lakes still 
abound in trout, pick- 
erel, white fish and 
salmon. 

There is much fish- 
ing also on the west coast, especially for salmon. Great numbers of 
salmon come to the Canadian rivers every year to spawn, pushing 



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p " 1 ' lillHI 


p 




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p^ 


te^.^^^^B 


JH8i(»^tiS*" 


i 


Mm|JBh»' 


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^^|f ; p 


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JI^J^ 



Fig. 187. 
Hundreds of salmon in a cannery. 



COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 175 

their way up stream, in spite of many natural obstacles. Sometimes, 
in order to get beyond waterfalls, they must leap several feet into the 
air (Fig. 155), and it is interesting to Avatch the skill with which 
they are able to spring out of the water and land in the foaming tor- 
rent at the crest of the falls. Sometimes they fail, but returning to 
the task, they try again and again until successful. It is believed 
that a salmon always returns to the same river. 

While travelling up the streams they are easily caught in nets 
set across the current (Fig. 186), or by dip nets in the hands of 
fishermen (Fig. 155), or sometimes by salmon wheels (Fig. 156). 
Immense numbers of salmon are canned in western Canada (Fig. 
187) as well as along the Columbia River and in Alaska. 

Sealing. — We have already learned (p. 157) about the seal fishing in 
Alaska. Seals are also found on the eastern side of Canada, but their fur 
is of little value. It is the layer of fat, or blubber, just beneath the skin, 
that is chiefly sought, because it is useful in the manufacture of oil. The 
Labrador seals rear their young on the fields of floating ice that drift south- 
ward in the Labrador current (Fig. 266). To reach these animals, strongly 
built steamers (Fig. 265) start out from St. John's, Newfoundland, in the 
early spring, as soon as the ice has begun to break up enough for ships to 
push their way through. Upon reaching a group of seals, scores of men 
rush out upon the ice and kill as many as possible (Fig. 178) ; then they 
return to each body to remove the skin and blubber. 

Agriculture and Ranching. — What was said about the agricul- 
ture and grazing of northern United States applies quite fully to 
Canada. The warm, damp winds from the Pacific render the climate 
of southern British Columbia much like that of Washington (p. 1-34) 
— an excellent one for wheat and hardy fruits. 

Farther east, especially on the plains at the base of the Rocky 
Mountains, in the provinces of Alberta and Assiniboia, the xilimate 
is too arid for farming. Therefore, ranching is of importance, as in 
Montana and western Dakota (pp. Ill and 143). Immense herds of 
sheep (Fig. 188) and cattle are reared on these broad plains, in the 
midst of which are several towns. The largest of these is Calgary, 
which has a population of about four thousand. 

In Manitoba the climate begins to be more favorable for agricul- 
ture, and the wheat fields found in Minnesota and eastern Dakota 
continue across the boundary far up into that province. Although 
the winters are long and exceedingly cold, the summers are warm, so 



176 



NORTH AMERICA 




Fig. 188. 
Sheep on the plains of western Canada. 



that grain, especially wheat (Fig. 189), oats, and barley, may be 
raised there. 

In the centre of this great wheat region is the city of Winnipeg, 
in which flour is manufactured, as in Minneapolis, and from which 

much grain is . sent 

eastward by rail. 
This city is situated 
on the banks of the 
Red River of the 
Xorth, which empties 
into Lake Winnipeg. 
Find out from the 
map (Fig. 181) what 
other large river is 
tributary to this lake ; 
also the name of its 
outlet. 

Farther east, on the peninsula between Lakes Erie, Huron, and 
Ontario, is found the best farm land in Canada. This district is in 
the province of Ontario, the most populous of the Canadian prov- 
inces, which includes nearly half of all thepeople in Canada. More 
than two-thirds of the inhabitants live outside of the large cities. 
What large cities do you find there? 

Although this country .is so far north, its climate is so modified 
by the water of the Great Lakes, that such crops as grapes, peaches, 
corn, and even tobacco 
are raised. In addi- 
tion, great quantities 
of oats, wheat, barley, 
and considerable flax 
are grown there. The 
wheat is made into 
flour, mainly for home 
consumption ; much of 
the barley is sent to the 
breweries of the 
United States ; and the oats are fed to stock. Some of the finest 
horses in America are reared in Ontario. This province is further 
noted for its great amount of cheese. 




Fig. 189. 
A wheat field in Manitoba. 



COUNTBIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 177 

A strip of excellent farming country is found practically the entire 
length of the St. Lawrence River and along the southern shores of the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence. Prince Edward Island is an island of fine farms; 
but the people in the toAvns, especially CHARLOTTETowi>r, the capital, are 
engaged in commerce and fishing. Portions of Kova Scotia and ISTew 
Brunswick, particularly along the coast and in the valley of the St. John 
River, are also farming districts. In fact, one of the most beautiful farm- 
ing regions in all of Canada is in southwestern Nova Scotia, noted for 
many crops, but especially for delicious apples. It was there that the 
French settlements were made about which Longfellow has written in 
his " Evangeline " ; and this is often called " The Land of Evangeline." 

Mining. — Gold and silver are mined in British Columbia, as in 
the Rocky Mountains farther south; but there has been far less 
development of mining in Canada than in the United States. Not 
only are there gold and silver, but also lead and copper ores, building 
stone, and coal. Deposits of coal are found both among the moun- 
tains and in the plains farther east. 

The famous Klondike region is situated among the Canadian mountains 
near the Alaskan boundary. Although so near the Arctic Circle, Dawson 
City in the Klondike has rapidly grown to a city with over 10,000 inhabit- 
ants. The discovery of gold so near the Alaskan boundary, thus causing 
that section suddenly to become of importance, has given rise to a dispute 
between the United States and Canada as to the exact location of the 
boundary line. 

Gold and silver are found in the province of Ontario, especially in the 
vicinity of the Lake of the Woods. Nickel is mined in Ontario, and some 
oil fields have been developed. A small quantity of gold is obtained in 
Nova Scotia and in Newfoundland, where some copper is also mined. 

In spite of the abundance of iron ore in certain places, the 
scarcity of coal near at hand has prevented Canada from producing 
much iron. The coal fields of western Canada are quite inaccessible 
to the eastern cities, and the coal beds of the east have never been 
thoroughly developed. In Nova Scotia, particularly on Cape Breton 
Island, there are extensive beds of bituminous coal of the same origin 
and age as those of Pennsylvania. Recently great blast furnaces 
have been erected at Sydney, Cape Breton, leading to the develop- 
ment of an important iron manufacturing industry in the coal fields. 
Since these mines are on the very seacoast, and often on the shores 
of excellent harbors, the coal is readily loaded into ships ; but the 
fact that the St. Lawrence is frozen in winter is a great disadvan- 
tage, not only to the cities along the rivers, but also to the coal mines. 



178 



NORTH AMERICA 



Trade Routes and Cities. — There appear to be two outlets for 
eastern Canada, — one by way of the St. Lawrence, the other by the 
way of Hudson Bay. But the latter is practically useless because 
floating ice so clogs the narrow Hudson Strait that vessels are able 
to pass through it during only a few weeks of summer. 

The St. Lawrence River suffers from the same disadvantage, 
though to a much less extent ; and, in addition to the ice, there are 
dense fogs where the damp air from the Gulf Stream is chilled in 
passing over the cold Labrador current (Fig. 266). But in spite of 
these objections, the St. Lawrence offers a much better water route 
than that which has so greatly influenced the growth of New York 




Fig. 190. 

A railway bridge across the St. Lawrence at Montreal, showing what a very broad river it 
is. Notice how small the long train of cars is when compared to the length of the 
bridge. There is no bridge across the river below Montreal. 

(p. 72). However, New York has such a productive territory to 
draw upon, that it has grown far more rapidly than Montreal. 

The exact location of Montreal (Fig. 182), the principal city 
in Canada, is easily explained. It is on the St. Lawrence, at the 
mouth of the Ottawa River, and just below the Lachiue Rapids 
which furnish a complete barrier to the passage of boats up stream. 
However, by entering the canals mentioned on page 173, river and 
lake boats may go up the St. Lawrence ; but ocean vessels must 
stop at Montreal. Thus goods from Europe may be carried to Mon- 
treal, fully a thousand miles from the ocean ; then, by transferring 
to other ships, they may be carried on canals, rivers, and lakes 
as far as Duluth, more than twelve hundred miles farther inland. 
By this means, and by railways also, raw products from the north, 
east, south, and west collect at Montreal, either to be manufactured, 
or to be shipped farther. 



COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 179 

As in the large cities of the United States, manufacturing in 
Montreal is varied, including the making of sugar, boots and shoes, 
cotton and woollen clothing. India-rubber goods, various steel and 
iron products, cigars, and multitudes of other articles. 

Farther down the river is Quebec (Fig. 182), a city especially 
noted on account of its historical associations. It was the centre of 
the French government in Canada, and for a long time the princi- 
pal city. It is situated upon a high bluff of the St. Lawrence, and 
is fortified so as to command that river. 

For a long time Quebec was engaged in commerce to a greater extent 
than Montreal ; but the better location of the latter city has drawn the com- 
merce away from Quebec, as the better situation of Boston drew the com- 
merce away from Salem (p. 54). This has been greatly aided by the 




Fig. 191. 
Tile Parliament buildings, Ottawa. 

building of ship canals and by the dredging of the St. Lawrence, thus deep- 
ening the channel so as to admit great ocean vessels as far as Montreal. 

Quebec is one of the quaintest and most interesting cities on the conti- 
nent. It resembles a bit of the Old World, transplanted to America, and a 
visitor from the United States feels that he is indeed in a foreign country. 
Besides trading and commerce, there is some manufacturing in Quebec, 
particularly the manufacture of boots and shoes. 

Ottawa, another city of great importance, is above Montreal at 
some large falls in the Ottawa River. On account of its fine water 
power, Ottawa has much manufacturing, and is especially noted for 
sawmills and other lumber manufactories. More than that, being 
the capital of the Dominion, it has some beautiful government build- 
ings, known there as the Parliament Buildings (Fig. 191). 



180 NORTH AMERICA 

The second city in size in Canada is Toronto, located on an 
excellent harbor on the shores of Lake Ontario. Being situated in 
the midst of a fertile farming country, and having water connection 
with coal on the east, and lumber and otlier raw products on the 
west, Toronto has become a manufacturing centre. Yet, in spite of 
this, the inhabitants have paid great attention to keeping the city 
beautiful, and it is one of the most attractive cities on the continent. 

A number of smaller cities are located along this water route. Port 
Arthur, which in position corresponds to Duluth in the United States, 
is a shipping point for grain, cattle, and other western products. Windsor 
(Fig. 124), opposite Detroit, shares some of the advantages of that city, 
being a shipping point and a manufacturing centre. Not far from Toronto, 
on the extreme western end of Lake Ontario, is Hamilton, a manufac- 
turing and trade centre ; and there are other cities on the same peninsula, 
the largest being London. 

On the eastern end of Lake Ontario, near the Thousand Islands, is 
Kingston, which has cotton and woollen mills, car shops and locomotire 
works, besides being a lake port and railway centre. As in New England 
and New York, nearly all the towns and cities of this part of Canada are 
engaged in manufacturing of one kind or another. 

Railways have been of great importance in Canada, as in the 
United States. The greatest railway is the Canadian Pacific, which 
reaches from St. John, New Brunswick, entirely across Canada, to 
Vancouver on the Pacific coast. It is the shortest route from 
England to China and Japan, and much freight is sent that way. 
Across the strait, on the island of Vancouver, is the city of Vic- 
toria. With what two cities on Puget- Sound may these be 
compared? How do they compare in size? (See Appendix, pp. vi. 
and ix.) 

One of the oldest cities in Canada, and one that has an excellent 
harbor, is Halifax in Nova Scotia, which is about the size of Mobile 
in the United States. The reason why it has never become very 
large is easily seen on examining the map (Fig. 181). There is 
almost no country back of it upon which it can draw to aid its 
growth. The narrow peninsula of Nova Scotia is not large enough 
to supply raw materials and manufactured articles in sufficient quan- 
tity to make it a great shipping point, and the country farther west 
is too difficult to reach. It is very much easier to send western 
goods to Montreal for shipment than to carry them as far as Halifax. 
Here, almost as well as in the case of New York and Montreal, we 
see why certain cities flourish or fail to flourish. 



COUNTBIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 



181 



Islands North of North America 

These cold and barren islands have almost no inhabitants. Scat- 
tered colonies of Eskimos are living along the coast (Figs. 27, 
179, and 180), many of them in almost as primitive a manner as 
when the continent was discovered. 

These people have adapted themselves to life in the Arctic 
region in a way that is truly remarkable (p. 22). They have no 
wood except the occasional pieces which drift to their shores ; they 
lack vegetable food, except the few berries that are found in 
summer; and the land supplies them witli almost nothing beyond a 
few birds and the caribou ; yet they are able to exist, notwithstand- 
ing the terrible cold of the 
long, dark winter. 

From the seal, polar bear, 
walrus, and caribou the Es- 
kimos obtain not only their 
food, but furs for their cloth- 
ing, skins for their tupics, or 
summer tents, and blubber 
for their light and fuel. In 
fact, except for the stones 
and snow used in their win- 
ter homes, or igloos (Fig. 
27), and occasional pieces of 
driftwood, they are depend- 
ent entirely upon animals for 
everything they use. 

They are a happy and in- 
telligent people. The latter 
fact is proved by the kinds 
of boats, sledges, and homes 
that thej have invented, and also by the fact that they are able to 
live at all amid such surroundings. ' Their struggle for existence is 
probably greater than that of any other race. On the west coast 
of Greenland they are under the control of the Danes, who trade 
with them for skins, walrus ivory, blubber, and eider down. The 
most northern of the Danish trading stations is Upernivik, where 
white men live farther north than any others in the world. But 
some uncivilized Eskimos have homes still farther north. 



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r ^jJaM 


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w^^bIiIIiIwmi 91 


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. Fm. 192. 

A Greenland Eskimo mother and her two children, 
one carried in the hood of sealskin on her back 
(see also Fig. 28). 



182 NOBTH AMEBIC A 

Away from the coast the greater part of Greenland is a barren 
waste of ice and snow — the most absolute desert known in the 
world (p. 8). Its area is about five hundred thousand square miles, 
or more than ten times as large as New York State. Throughout 
this area there is no living thing. In the interior, where the eleva- 
tion is over ten thousand feet, the temperature, even in midsummer, 
remains below zero, and rain never falls. 

This snow forms a great ice sheet which moves out in all direc- 
tions toward the sea ; and there the end of the glacier rests in the 
sea (Fig. 14) ; as it pushes out into the deeper water, great masses are 
broken off, forming icebergs (Figs. 14 and 179). 

Review Questions and Topics. — (1) Tell about the French in Canada. 
(2) What provinces constitute the Dominion of Canada ? Locate each. (3) What 
about Newfoundland? (4) Where do the majority of Canadians live? Why 
there? (5) Compare southern Canada with the United States in physiography 
and climate. (6) Where is some of the grandest scenery? (7) The best farm 
land? (8) Xame and locate the principal rivers. (9) What is the principal 
water route? (10) Mention some of the difficulties of shipping by that route. 

(11) Describe the climate, physiography, and vegetable life in northern Canada. 

(12) In regard to lumbering, tell about the extent of forest; kinds of trees; "and 
cities most noted for lumber. (13) What provinces in the east are especially 
engaged in fishing? (14) Name the important fishing ports. (15) Tell about 
the salmon of the western coast. (16) Compai-e sealing in Alaska with that on 
the coast of Labrador. What use is made of the animals in each case? (17) Com- 
pare the agricultural products of Washington with those of British Columbia. 
Why so similar? (18) What is the principal occupation in Canada just north of 
Montana? Why? (19) Tell about the pi-ovince of Manitoba. (20) Which is the 
most populous province in Canada? Why ? (21) Where is " The Land of Evange- 
line"? (22) What mineral products are found in Canada? (23) Locate the chief 
mining regions. (24) Where are the leading coal mines? (25) Why is Hudson 
Bay not an important outlet for Canada ? (26) How does the water route from 
the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Port Arthur compare with that from New York Bay 
to Duluth? Name particularly the advantages of each. (27) Give the reasons 
for the location of Montreal. (28) Mention the leading industries of that city. 
(29) Tell about each of the other cities mentioned. (80) Tell about the Eskimos. 
(31) What is the condition in Greenland. 

Suggestions. — (1) Compare the area of Canada with that of the United 
States (Appendix, pp. i. and iii.). (2) The population also (Appendix). (3) Collect 
pictures of different kinds of trees in Canada. (4) Tell the story of " Evangeline." 
(5) Lake Ontario is how much higher than Lake Erie ? How are ships able to 
pass from one lake to the other ? (6) Explain why Montreal has outgrown Quebec. 
(7) Why should Buffalo grow more rapidly than Toronto? (8) Find some one 
who has been in Canada, and have him tell you what he has seen there. (9) Find 
out more about the government of Canada. (10) Of what advantage is it to Eng- 
land to have such a large, productive colony? (11) Write a story describing the 
pleasures of the Eskimos. 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 



XII. COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 

Mexico 

Physiography and Climate. — Mexico consists of four areas of 
different altitudes. Near the sea are coastal plains and other low- 
lands. In the interior, occupying a large part of the country, is 
an arid plateau (Fig. 196). The third area includes the slopes 
between these two, and the fourth consists of peaks and mountain 
ranges which are a continuation of those in southern United States. 




Fig. 193. 
A scene on the arid plateau of Mexico. A road bordered by cactus. 

Among the mountains, as in the United States, there are a number 
of volcanic cones, two of them, Orizaba and Popocatepetl, being 
among the highest peaks on the continent. 

This part of North America is narrow, and since the north and 
south divide causes some of the streams to flow eastward and the others 
westward, there can be no long rivers in Mexico. The steep slope 
from the plateau to the lowland gives the streams a rapid fall, so 
that they have cut deep canyons in the edge of the plateau. More- 
over, the arid climate of the interior allows them little water. This 
lack of large navigable rivers has interfered with the development of 
Mexico. Can you suggest why ? 

As in the case of our Southern States, the land has been rising 
instead of sinking. Therefore the coast is regular and there are 

183 



IS-l NORTH AMEBIC A 

few good harbors. Two projections form tlie peninsulas of Yucatan 
and Lower California, the former being a continuation of the moun- 
tain chain which made Cuba, Haiti, and Porto Rico. Lower Cali- 
fornia is a southern extension of the Coast Ranges of the United 
States. 

If the surface of Mexico were near the sea-level, the climate of 
the greater portion would be tropical ; but owing to the differences 
in altitude, there are several different climates. The low coastal 
plains, near Vera Cruz and in Yucatan, are hot and damp, being 
reached by the winds which blow across the Gulf of Mexico and 
Caribbean Sea. There is also much rain upon the cooler plateau 
slopes of eastern Mexico ; but with the exception of these regions, 
the greater part of Mexico has too little rainfall for agriculture 
without irrigation. 

History. — After Columbus discovered the West Indies, the 
neighboring coast was visited and settled, and thus the Spaniards 
naturally came into possession of Mexico. One of the boldest of the 
Spanish invaders was Cortez, who conquered the Aztec and Pueblo 
Indians as far north as northern New Mexico. 

Spain found so much gold and silver in Mexico that many Span- 
iards settled there. They developed the mines, started coffee plan- 
tations on the temperate slopes, established farms on the plateau 
where irrigation was possible, and carried on cattle ranching in the 
more arid portions. The intermarriage of Spanish and Indians 
caused the population to become very much mixed ; and there are 
now in Mexico not only savage Indians and semicivilized Aztecs, but 
many half-breeds, besides some pure-blooded Spaniards. 

Spain governed Mexico so badly that the people rebelled, and in 
1821 won their independence, establishing a republic with a govern- 
ment modelled after our own. There are a number of states, each 
with a government and capital, somewhat as in each of our states, 
and a central government with the capital at Mexico City, where 
the President lives. For a long time Mexico also included the states 
of Texas and Colorado and the country west of them to the Pacific. 
Texas won its independence by war and joined the Union ; and by 
the Mexican war the United States obtained the territory marked 
"ceded by Mexico, 1848," in Figure 240. 

Agriculture and Ranching. — Although the climate of a large part 
of Mexico is arid, much agriculture is carried on by the aid of irriga- 
tion, which is made possible by reason of the snow and rain among 









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Fig. 1!I5 (Upper). 
Interior of a Mexican liome of tlie poorer class. 

Fig. 19fi (Lower). 
View of a part of the arid Plateau of Mexico, with mountains in the background. 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 



185 




the mountains. On the irrigated farms the products of the temperate 
zone are raised, sucli as wheat, corn, and beans — the latter being 
one of the staple products of the Mexican diet. Much fruit is also 
produced, especially apples, pears, peaches, and grapes. 

The Mexican farming methods, which are very crxide, are a mixture of 
ancient Aztec customs and those introduced from Spain. In Mexico 
one may still see the 
wooden plough (Fig. 
197), which barely 
scrapes the ground, 
and also the wooden- 
wheeled cart, drawn 
by oxen (Fig. 31). 

The home life of 
the people is interest- 
ing. Their houses 
have but one story and 
are commonly built of ^^'^' ■'^^'' 

a brick made of clay ^ ^^^^'^^^ ploughing with a wooden plough. 

mixed with straw, and then dried in the sun (Fig. 198). These' sun-dried 
bricks, or adobes, are larger than the bricks that we use, and are piled tier 
upon tier, being joined by layers of mud. Often there is but one room 
(Fig. 195), the ceiling being made of brush, and the floor of nothing but the 
earth or stones. In this one room the whole family cooks, eats, and sleeps. 
Their food usually consists of very simple materials, such as unraised 

bread, baked in the 
fireplace, beans, and 
occasionally meat, com- 
monly cooked with red 
pepper. Men, women, 
and children use to- 
bacco. 

While this descrip- 
tion is true for the 
poorer classes, it of 
course does not apply 
to the wealthier class 
of Mexicans. Nevertheless even these have the same kind of archi- 
tecture, which resembles that of southern Spain (Fig. 201), introduced 
into the latter country by the Moors many centuries ago. 

Upon the arid plateaus, the plants resemble those in western 
United States (p. 19), and among them are found the sage bush, the 
mesquite, and the cactus (Figs. 23 and 193). One among them, 
known as the maguey, or agave (Fig. 199), is very widely used in 




Fig. 198. 
An adobe house in Mexico. 



186 



NORTH AMERICA 




Fig. 199. 
A field of maguey plants (century plants) . 



Mexico. Its stout, sharp-pointed leaves rise from near the ground 
in a tuft. In the centre of this rests the flower stalk, which some- 
times reaches a height of forty feet, and bears a cluster of white 

flowers on the top. 
It is also called the 
century planU because 
it requires so long 
(from ten to seventy 
years) to reach ma- 
turity and produce 
this flower stalk. 
From the fermented 
juice of this plant 
the Mexicans obtain 
an alcoholic drink 
known as mescal^ and 
by distilling it, a drink known as pulque. The tough leaves contain 
a fibre which is made into paper and strong thread. So valuable is 
the maguey that it is carefully cultivated upon plantations (Fig. 199). 
As in western United States, large parts of these arid plateaus 
cannot be reached by irrigating ditches. Such parts are valuable 
for cattle and sheep ranches. Horses and goats are also raised, but 
neither horses nor mules are used so much in Mexico as in the United 
States. The most common draft animal is the little jackass, or burro, 
sometimes as small as a Shetland pony. 
On the damp lowlands, rice, sugar- 
cane, and cotton are produced; also 
tropical fruits, such as oranges, ba- 
nanas, and pineapples, quantities of 
which are exported from southeastern 
Mexico. Upon the slopes between the 
tropical lowlands and the temperate 
plateau much tobacco and coffee are 
raised. 




Fig. 200. 
The coffee berry. 



The latter requires a rich soil, abun- 
dant moisture, a warm climate, and plenty 
of shade. In order to secure shade, the 
coffee bush, which reaches a height of from ten to fifteen feet, is planted 
in the shade of higher trees. A white blossom appears as early as March, 
and after the flower falls off the coffee berry begins to grow. It resembles 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 187 

a dark red cranberry. On the outside is a husk enclosing two kernels that 
fit with the flat sides together ; and in order to prepare the coffee for the 
market the outside husk must first be removed. This is sometimes done 
by the Mexicans in a very crude way; but on the larger plantations, 
machinery is employed. 

Southern Mexico. — In southern Mexico, near Central America, there 
are dense tropical forests from which are obtained many valuable woods, 
such as mahogany, rosewood, and logwood. Elsewhere in that country 
forests are rare, excepting upon the higher mountains. In fact there 
is so little forest land that the Mexicans living on the arid plateau find 
difficulty in obtaining wood for fuel. Much of this is dug from the 
ground; for some of the arid-land bushes, notably the mesquite, have 
long, thick roots which make excellent firewood. 

Besides the valuable woods of the tropical forests, southern Mexico 
produces the vanilla bean, which grows upon a climbing plant. In the 
seed-pod are nestled the very fragrant beans which are used for flavoring 
extracts, for perfumeries, and for medicine. Pepper, made from the 
dried berry of a tropical plant, is also obtained in Mexico. Indigo, useful 
as a dye, is likewise obtained from a berry in this region, and sarsaparilla 
from the roots of a tropical plant. 

The Mines. — One of the principal objects that the Spaniards had 
in exploring the New World was to obtain the precious metals, gold 
and silver; and both in Mexico and South America they were 
rewarded in their search by the discovery of very rich mines, some 
of them having been previously worked by the Indians. Mexico is 
still a great mining country, producing almost as much silver as the 
United States, and being therefore the second silver-producing nation 
in the world. There are also some mines of copper and lead. 

Many of the mines are now operated by Europeans and Ameri- 
cans, so that modern methods have been introduced; but in some of 
those managed by Mexicans, primitive methods, similar to those used 
by the Indians, are still employed. Large areas have never been 
carefully examined for ore. In fact, some parts of the country are 
still occupied by Indian tribes, who not only prevent miners from 
coming in, but even defy the government. 

The Cities. — While great numbers of Mexicans are engaged in 
farming and ranching, and are therefore scattered over the country, 
they have, wherever possible, gathered together in villages and small 
towns. These communities are often necessary in order to obtain 
the water supply needed for irrigation. It is usually too great a 
task for a single farmer to build a ditch ; and therefore a number 
combine and thus live close together. 



188 



NOBTR AMERICA 



In a few places, too, there are large cities, the greatest being 
Mexico City, with a population of about 350,000. In this city, as 
in numerous other places in Mexico, there are many fine buildings, 
especially cathedrals ; for the Mexicans, like Spaniards in other parts 
of the world, are chiefly Roman Catholics. 

Another city in the interior is PuEBLA, founded in 1531, and 
now having a population about equal to that of Cambridge, Mass. 
It is situated near one of the ancient cities, or pueblos, of the Aztecs. 
San Luis Potosi is larger than Peoria, 111., and there are a number 
of other cities with a population of fifty thousand and over. 

Since the eastern coast of Mexico is low and sandy, it has no good 
harbors, the two largest cities on the seacoast being Tampico. and 




Fig. 201. 
The Mexican city of Leon. 



Vera Cruz, whose harbors are protected by breakwaters. There 
are good harbors on the western coast, as that at Acapulco ; but 
since it is backed by high mountains and a worthless country, that 
port has never become important. 

Because of the ignorance of the working class, and the absence of 
water power and coal, there is very little manufacturing in Mexico ; and 
that which is done is largely carried on by hand. However even the 
uneducated Mexicans are artistic and do some beautiful kinds of hand- 
work. There are large tobacco factories in the tobacco district. Some 
earthenware is also manufactured, and some cotton cloth; but there are 
no manufacturing towns, no great watch and shoe factories, and no im- 
mense blast furnaces, such as we find in many parts of the United States. 
But Mexico is now making rapid progress. 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 



189 



Centkal America 
The Republics. — South of Mexico are five small nations, known 
as the Republics of Central America, each of which has a govern- 
ment modelled after that of the United States. They are, however, 
not good examples of republics, chiefly because of the ignorance of 
the people. An ambitious general, obtaining a few followers, is 
liable at any time to start a revolution and overturn the existing 
government. There is an almost constant state of turmoil in these 
nations ; war after war has occurred ; presidents have been deposed 
or murdered ; and such a state of unrest has existed that there 
has been little chance for development. Their political condition 
resembles that of the country in which they live, which is subject 
to disastrous eruptions of volcanoes, and to earthquakes of great 
destructiveness. They truly live in the midst of a state of unrest. 

The earthquake shocks have levelled towns and killed thousands of 
people. For instance, San" Salvador, the capital of the country by that 
name, was so frequently destroyed by earthquakes that the inhabitants 
decided to choose a new location for their city ; but the one they selected 
is hardly better than the one they abandoned. 

Most of Central America is mountainous ; and, being in the 
tropical zone, the climate is hot. The rainfall is heavy, especially 
on the eastern coast, where it is 
so rainy that there are dense 
jungles along the shores of the 
Caribbean Sea. 

Of the five countries forming 
the Central American group, 
the smallest is San Salvador, the 
next, Costa Rica. Nicaragua, 
Honduras, and Guatemala are 
about equal in size. In addi- 
tion to these, just south of 
Yucatan, is British Honduras 
(or Belize). The largest city 
in the group is New Guate- 
mala, the capital of Guatemala, 
having a population of over 
seventy thousand. Like San Salvador, the inhabitants have been 
forced to change its location, which was formerly at the base of two 
very active volcanoes ; hence the name, New Guatemala. 




Fig. 202. 
Loading a train with bananas in Costa Rica. 



190 



NOBTH AMERICA 




Fig. 203. 
Natives sorting coffee in Costa Rica. 



A large portion of these countries is occupied by dense tropical 
forests, from which are obtained mahogany, rosewood, logwood, fustic, 
and other valuable cabinet and dye woods. The rubber tree also 
grows there, and the production of rubber is one of the industries of 
the region. 

As in Mexico, coffee is raised on the hill slopes in the shade of 
the forest trees. One of the most important districts for this 

industry is Costa Rica. 
Bananas (Fig. 202), 
sugar, tobacco, indigo, 
and cocoa are Other 
products of Central 
America. 

Some gold and 
silver are obtained, the 
former near Bluefields, 
the latter in Honduras. 
The inhabitants are 
mainly Indians, Span- 
iards, or half-breeds ; and owing to the uneducated condition of the 
great majority, and even the uncivilized condition of many, there is 
practically no manufacturing carried on in these countries. 

Canals. — To us one of the principal points of interest con- 
nected with this region is the building of canals across the narrow 
strip of land which separates the Atlantic from the Pacific. One 
canal has already been started between the towns of Colon and 
Panama on the Isthmus of Panama. The distance is only about 
fifty miles, and the elevation but three hundred feet at the highest 
point. This, the Panama Canal, has been especially supported by the 
French. 

A second route favored for a canal, and one that has found favor 
in the United States, is the Nicaragua route, which is much longer, 
but passes over an elevation only about half as great as the Panama 
Canal. Moreover, a large part of the distance is occupied by a 
river and by Lake Nicaragua (Fig. 194), the largest lake in North 
America south of the United States. This lake is about ninety-two 
miles long and empties into the Caribbean Sea through the San 
Juan River. 

Either of the canals would be of great service to the seacoast cities 
of North America and Europe. By such a canal a steamer going 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITEI) STATES 



191 



from London to San Francisco would save five thousand miles, while 
eight thousand miles would be saved between New York and San 
Francisco. Examine a globe to see why more would be saved in the 
latter case. 

The West Indies 

(Map, Fig. 163.) 

From the Yucatan and Florida peninsulas a chain of islands reaches 
to the mouth of the Orinoco on the South American coast. These 
islands enclose the Caribbean Sea ; and, with the aid of the penin- 
sulas of Florida and Yucatan, the Gulf of Mexico also. Because 
of the mistake made by Columbus, these islands are to this day 
called the West Indies. They are often known as the Antilles. 

With the exception of the northern portion of the Bahamas, this 
entire archipelago lies within the tropics, and therefore has a warm 
climate ; and all have a damp climate. There are many scores of 
islands in the group, only a few of which are large. Two of these, 
Cuba and Porto Rico, have already been described (pp. 159 to 162). 
Tell what you can about them. 

Jamaica. — South of Cuba lies the Island of Jamaica, the third in 
size in the West Indies, and a possession of Great Britain. Its capi- 
tal is Kingston, a city nearly as large as Portland, Me. This 
island is mountainous 



in the centre, but has 
an excellent soil on 
the lower slopes and 
in the valleys, and 
is very productive. 
The inhabitants are 
mainly negroes or 
mulattoes, there be- 
ing fully forty ne- 
groes to one white 
person. The women 
do out-door work 
fully as much as the 
men. 

The occupation of 




Fig. 204. 
A field of stigar-caue in the West Indies (St. Croix). 



the Jamaicans is chiefly agriculture. One of the main products is 
sugar-cane, which is made into sugar, molasses, and rum. Early 



192 



NOETR AMERICA 



vegetables and fruits, such as oranges and bananas, are also raised. 
Jamaica ginger, of which every one has heard, is obtained from the 
root of a plant that grows in this island. 

Haiti. — The first large island discovered by Columbus in 1492 
was Haiti, and on it he made settlements and opened mines. The 
descendants of the Spanish slaves have now become free, after a 
very complex history, and have set up two negro republics, Haiti 
and Santo Domingo. The capital of the former is Port au Prince ; 
and of the latter, Santo Domingo. Many of the natives obtain 
their living in the most primitive fashion, like the negroes of Africa ; 

but others, especially 
near the seacoast, are 
engaged in raising 
sugar, tobacco, coffee, 
and bananas. 

Lesser Antilles. — 
Most of the islands 
among the Lesser 
Antilles are posses- 
sions of Great Britain, 
though some belong 
to other nations. For 
instance, Martinique 
and Guadeloupe be- 
long to France ; St. 
Thomas and St. Croix 
to Denmark ; and 
others to Holland. 
Many of these small 
islands are volcanic cones, built upon the crest of a mountain ridge 
which is . mainly beneath the sea (Fig. 1). Most of the volcanoes 
now appear to be extinct, though in 1797 and 1813 in Guadeloupe, 
and in 1812 in St. Vincent, there were volcanic outbursts. Hot 
water and steam still rise from the craters in other islands, showing 
that the volcanic fires have not altogether died out. 

The products of these islands are similar to those of the other 
West Indies, the most important of all being sugar-cane. 

The Bahamas. — North of Haiti and Cuba are several hundred 
small islands, called the Bahamas. A number of these are inhab- 
ited, and on one is situated the city of Nassau. These islands have 




Fig. -0,3. 
A tropical sceue in the AVest Indies (St. Croix). 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 193 

been built by coral polyps. In the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, 
which sweeps over the shallow bank on which the islands lie, these 
minute sea animals have built reefs. Waves have washed the dead 
coral fragments together, forming bars and beaches, and the wind 
has blown the coral sand into low sand-dune hills. In this way the 
islands have been made. 

Sponges are obtained from the clear, warm waters of the Bahama 
banks. To obtain them, the natives either cruise about in boats, 
dragging the bottom, or they strip off their clothes and dive into 
the clear water, tearing the sponge from the bottom to which it is 
clinging. 

From the land, early vegetables, pineapples, oranges, and cocoa- 
nuts are raised by the inhabitants, who are chiefly negroes. One of 
the industries on these islands is caring for winter visitors. Why 
should people wish to go there ? 

The Bermudas 

Far out in the Atlantic, alone in mid-ocean, and 600 miles east of 
the Carolines, is a cluster of small islands, known as the Bermudas, 
the largest being only 15 miles long by one or two miles in width. 
Being in the open ocean, and surrounded by warm currents, the 
Bermudas have a delightful and equable climate. In midwinter, 
when people in the same latitude in the United States are shivering 
with cold, those in Bermuda are able to sit out of doors late at night. 

This group of islands, which belongs to Great Britain, is inhabited 
mainl}^ by negroes and mulattoes, who are engaged in raising early 
vegetables, especially potatoes and onions, for the American market. 
Another important product is the Easter lily, great fields of which 
are raised for the Easter season. It is natural that many persons 
from the United States should be attracted to such a climate every 
winter. The majority of these visitors stay in the largest city, 
Hamilton. 

review questions and suggestions 

Mexico: Questions. — (1) Describe the surface of Mexico. (2) Why are 
there few good harbors? (3) Tell about the temperature and rainfall in the 
different parts. (4) Give the history of Mexico : — the early settlement ; the 
industries developed ; the present government ; the loss of territory. (5) Mention 
the leading products from the irrigated farms. (6) Tell about the methods of 
farming. (7) About the home life. (8) Name some of the plants on the arid 
plateaus; what products are obtained from the maguey? (9) What are the chief 



194 NORTH AMERICA 

products on the damp lowlands? (10) On the slopes farther inland? (11) Tell 
about coffee raising. (12) In what part of the country are the forests? (13) Name 
the valuable woods. (14) Name the products of southern Mexico. (15) Tell 
about the mining of precious metals. (16) Locate the principal cities in the 
interior; on the coast. (17) Why is there little manufacturing? (18) What 
kinds are there? 

Suggestions. — (19) Find out why coffee raising requires special care. 
(20) Find an article of furniture made of mahogany. (21) Walk toward Mexico 
City. (22) What reason can you give for its location? (23) Compared with 
water routes, are railways more or less important in Mexico than in the United 
States? Why? (24) Collect pictures of Mexican scenes. (25) Find some one 
who has been in Mexico, and have him tell you about it. (26) Who is the Presi- 
dent of Mexico ? (27) Make a sketch map of Mexico. 

Central America: Questions. — (28) Name the five nations in Central 
America. (29) To whom does Belize belong? (30) What about the earth- 
quakes in Central America? (31) Describe the climate. (32) Locate the leading- 
cities. (33) What products of Mexico are also found in Central America? 
(34) On the map locate the canal that has been begun across the Isthmus of 
Panama. (35) Where is it proposed to start another? Give reasons in favor 
of each. 

Suggestions. — (36) What disadvantages do you see in the lack of a central 
government for all the Central American republics? (37) In what other ways 
besides saving coal would a canal there prove of advantage ? Let a committee be 
appointed from your class to obtain definite facts about the matter by writing 
to some ship company. (38) Why would harbors at each end of the canal be 
necessary ? (39) Make a sketch of Central America. 

The West Indies : Questions. — (40) Into what groups are the islands 
divided? (41) Tell about their climate. (42) What can you say about Jamaica? 
(43) What two republics on the island of Haiti ? Name their capitals. (44) What 
are its products? (45) How have most of the Lesser Antilles been formed? 
(46) What is their principal product ? (47) How have the Bahama Islands been 
built ? (48) Name some of the products of the islands. 

Suggestion. — (49) How does each of the four largest islands compare in 
area and population with New York State? (See tables in Appendix, pp. i and 
iii.) 

The Bermudas. — (50) For what are they important ? 

For References, see Teacher's Book. r--- 



XIII. REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 

Physical Geography. — The natural advantages that North Amer- 
ica possesses as a home for man have been the result of slow changes 
extending through millions of years. How have the mountains been 



A&w York. 



S,99%a3'3 




Pennsylvania. 



jr.ZSQpi'i- 



lUinois. 



3,326.3^1 



Ohio. 



3,6 72316 



Missotiri 



^679,1B^ 



Fig. 206. 

The five states having the greatest population in 1900. In this and all the other similar 

figures the relative importance of the states is indicated hy the area of the squares. 

brought into existence? (p. 2) and where are the principal chains? 
How was coal formed ? (p. 2.) What portion of the continent was 
covered by the glacier? (Fig. 9.) What work of advantage to us 
did it accomplish? (pp. 8-11). In what ways is the more recent 
rising or sinking of the coast of importance ? (p. 13.) 




196 



NOBTH AMERICA 



How do the animals and plants of North America vary ? (pp. 
16-22.) Describe the manner of life among the Eskimos (p. 22); 
among the Indians (p. 23). What European nations endeavored 




Fig. 208. 
The star shows the centre of population of the United States. 

to obtain possession of large sections of this continent ? (pp. 24-27.) 

Give some reasons why the English succeeded most fully (pp. 26-28). 

Population. — At the present time there are probably more than 

a hundred million people living in North America, distributed among 




LEGEM): 
1 Considerable Com Raised 
1 Greatest Cojn. Raising Section 






Fig. 209. 
On these maps the spaces left blank indicate either little or no production. 



BEVIEW 



197 



the four greater sections as follows : Central America, over three 
million ; Canada, fully six million ; Mexico, over thirteen million ; 
and the United States (not including dependencies), more than 



Fowa 


nunoti 


Missoari. 


Tedcas 




^S8.et9,90e 

ZS^f.999.aS0 


^*a989,9S% 
I99,9S9,6W 




^H777.S0t 


$3J,B14,t7a 
WS,3 36,700 


$31^926,0^7 

isa.7st.ee6 













Fig. 210. 
Corn production, in dollars and in bushels, in the five leading corn-producing states. 

seventy-six million. From these figures it is evident that about 
three-fourths of all the inhabitants of the continent are living in the 
United States. Figure 207 shows the density of population in the 
different parts of the Union. (See also Fig. 39.) Where is the most 
thickly settled quarter ? Why ? The most sparsely settled ? Figure 
208 gives the location of the cities, the largest having the largest dots. 
In the Appendix (p. iv.) is a table of the largest cities. Find the 
dot (Fig. 208) that represents each large city and give its population. 
In what respect are these two figures (207 and 208) alike ? 




LEGEND : 
i Considerable Wteat !^aised 
i Greatest Wlieat Raising District 



5J\: 



Fig. 211. 



City and Country. — The great cities are so numerous, and are so 
often mentioned, that there is danger of over-estimating their impor- 
tance as compared with the country. At the time of George Wash- 



198 



NOBTTI AMERICA 



ington very few people lived in cities. Even at the present time 
about two-thirds of our seventy-six million inhabitants live either 
in the country, or in towns with a population of less than eight 
thousand. In Mexico and Canada the proportion living in cities is 
still smaller. In other words, the great majority of persons in North 
America are country people. 



JforfftPakoea 




Fig. 212. 
Wheat production, in dollars and bushels, in the five leading wheat-producing states. - 

Country. — The leading occupations of those living outside of 
the cities have already been studied. Agriculture is the most 
important of all. At the present time there are over five million 
families occupying farms in the United States. About how many 
persons does that represent ? Why should so many people live on 
farms ? 

Figure 209 shows the regions that are extensively engaged in 
raising corn. What states are included ? In 1898 nearly two bil- 
lion bushels were produced; how many is that to each of our inhab- 
itants ? How is corn cultivated, and what are its uses? (p. 109.) 

Many of the states that raise corn are also extensively engaged 
in the wheat industry. Figure 211 shows the wheat regions. Tell 

about wheat in the valley 




of the Red River of the 
North, and about the Dal- 
rymple farm in particular 
(p. 110). Wheat and 
corn are our most valu- 
able food crops. What 
other grains can you men- 
tion, and for what is each 
used ? 

The cotton belt is con- 
fined entirely to the south- 
eastern portion of the country, as shown in Figure 213. Why ? 
Name the principal cotton-raisiug states. Tell about the growth 



Map of the 
"V Cotton Belt 

"^ XSCALE OF MILES 



Fig. 213. 



REVIEW 



199 



Texas. 


Afississippt 


Ceorguz 


Alabama 






SCarvUna 


l.J2.^,77i 


t,3J0.r6/ 


IJtZfiQI 


(fl3(!06J 











Fig. 214. 
Five principal cotton-producing states. 

and uses of cotton (p. 87). Where in tliese states are sugar and 
rice grown ? How is the work carried on? (p. 102.) 

Cuba, 

/Jawaiian 




Porto FOco. ii:s.ooo,ooo 



Fig. 215. 

Principal sugar-producing districts in the United States and its 
dependencies. 

According to Figure 216 what states are largely engaged in 
tobacco growing ? What is the appearance of the plant, and how is 
it prepared for use ? (p. 63.) 




Fig. 216. 



Following are three figures showing the principal states from 
which some of the other important farm products come. 



200 



NORTH AMERICA 



New York. 


/Pennsylvania 


loTva 


Cah/ornia- 




$*9.sai,ee7 
e.oos.aB9 

Tens 




$33,767,^17 
3,630,439 




$9B^Z3,063 
6,711,309 


Z,7I6,033 




$1113 russi 




■ '■-■■■'^e--.'-:^^^^ 











Fig. 217. 

Hay production, in dollars and tons, in the live principal hay-producing states. For what is 

hay used. 




i^07,0S/ 



^(l/)77jaB 

xpoa.x.63 



2,604,967 



Fig. 218. 
Number of hogs and their value in the five principal states. 
JVetv York 



663.9n,SLW 


Iowa. 


^tennrv/Hzrata 


mtrwis 






Ohio. 




*6p;iBi,tn 


U68,a(W,«d(7 


'36T,Ze9,JW4 


3ie,92S^96 


"^^fe 










1 









Fig. 219. 
Five principal milk-^jroducing states. 



Mining is a second industry which confines people largely to 
small towns and to the country. About four hundred thousand 



lij \}i. 



\:c °'''- f >-f — j- 

« J . / '°AHo i © ; 



LE'GENDi: 
I Some" Coal Enoduced 
iGxe.atesfc Coa-l 'Pcodu.ciiig Se.ction 




Fig. -220. 



BEVIEW 



201 







i*,zi-aj.s9 _ ' 



T(j;&i.9.jro3 



Fig. 221. 

Coal production, in dollars and tons, in 
the five leading coal-produoing states. 



men are employed at it. How many different metals can yon iiame? 
How many other products can yon Pennsylvania, 
mention that are obtained from 
underground ? 

Of them all, ih.Q fuels are prob- 
ably the most valuable. Why ? 
What kinds are there ? Figure 
220 shows how extensive the coal- 
beds are. Name the states in 
which the greatest quantities of 
coal are mined. Of what impor- 
tance is it that there are coal-fields in so many parts of the country ? 
What kinds of coal are there? And what are the differences 

between them ? (pp. 3-4.) De- 
scribe a coal mine (p. 6Q'). What 
are the uses of coal? 

Name the chief states in 
which petroleum and natural 
gas are found. Tell also how 
they have been produced during 

Iron ore production, in dollars and tons, in the .-, , ^ i , .-. • 

five leading iron ore-producing states. ^^^^ P^®^ ^S^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^®^^ 

uses are (p. 67). 
The ores producing iron are among the most important of the 
mineral products. Why so important? Where are the principal 



Micfiigan. 



$0.347 6 IS 

e.08T.4e3 
TbrLs 


Minnesota. 




f4.oz9,on 

5,60I.4Z9 


Alabama 


VirginWpgrm'a 


i.p98fiZt 








y^ \'"ni°.l' 




^a. 1 --T. 



Fig. 222. 



~iSj jl^ j-iu ni 110 105 

i^^Ho-^- — \ r 

i "sv ■ u. r ' 

' CT'' >4 






105 100 / 9o 90 S5 



Fig. 223. 
Leading iron, copper, oil, and gas-producing regions. 



202 



NORTH AMERICA 



iron-producing regions? (Fig. 223.) How is pig iron made? (pp. 
69-70.) Why is not the Lake Superior district a favorable place 
for smelting iron ore ? 

Among the metals of great importance to man are the precious 
metals gold and silver. Describe three methods of gold mining 
(pp. 135-136.) Tell about gold and silver mining in California 
and Colorado (pp. 135-137). In what other parts of our country 
are the precious metals found? (Figs. 225-226.) What two sec- 
tions are most noted for copper mining? (Fig. 223.) Tell about 
that industry in each section (pp. 118 and 137). Where and how 
is stone quarrying carried on in New England? (pp. 45-47.) How 
is salt mining carried on in New York? (p. 64.) 

Grazing is a third important rural occupation. Point out on 
the map (Fig. 44) the portions of the country largely given up to 

it. Why these ? Relate how cattle 
ranching is carried on (p. 113); also 
sheep ranching (p. 143). Which 
states are most important in these 
industries? (Figs. 228-230.) 

Lumbering is a fourth great 
industry that attracts people to the 
country. Figure 231 shows the 
distribution of the forests. De- 
scribe the industry as it is carried 
on in Maine (p. 42). In the 
Southern States (p. 86). In 
Michigan (p. 115). In the North- 
west (p. 138). Why these differ- 
ences? Which are the most com- 
mon kinds of trees? What are 
the products of the forest besides 
lumber? (pp. 44, 45, and 86.) 

Fishing is a fifth prominent 
occupation outside of cities. In 
what sections is it especially im- 
portant? Describe how codfishing 
fishing (p. 152) ; the oyster in- 




FiG. 232. 
Sections where ocean fish are found. 



is carried on (p. 48) ; salmon 
dustry (p. 61). 

Altogether, therefore, there are five industries that lead the 
greater part of the inhabitants of the United States to live in small 




Fig. 224. 
Gold aud silver-producing regions indicated by crosses. 



Coloreuia 



$79,10^,200^ 




California. 



f 4,6)8,500 
7O7.J60 



SDdkota 



}J.63H,900 



Montana 



2/IJ63 



Nevada. 



fZ,a76,'/00 
lva,983 



Fig. 225. 
Gold production, in dollars and ounces, in the five leading gold-producing states. 



Colorado. 



i>Z7,974-,33.5' 
21636,400 




Montana. 



SZ0,2S7,487 

/j;66 7,aoo 



V^^ Idaho 



•$a,IOO,9 78 
6.263:600 



$6,336,903 
H.901Z00 



Fig. 226. 
Silver production, in dollars and ounces, in the five leading silver-producing states. 




Fig 




A T L J. N T I C 



^^J^% ^-?>..os„ 






O C E A JfT 

Transcontinental 
Eailroads in 

UMTED STATES 

and adjacent i>ortion8 of 

NORTH AMERICA. 

Transcontinental Railroads thus : ^—^—m— 

Other Railroads tlius : 

Standard Time Divisions thus : +♦ + * + + 
Connecting Steamship Lines thus : 



Scale of Miles. 
100 aOO 300 400 600 




Iowa 


Texas. 


Kansas 


JUtrwts 




$110,1 i-xs'he 


NewYork.. 












$93,309.98J 


$77,t0a.3t3 


$70,JJ9,OZ6 


$et,JZa,379 


'^^^^MMISM 


J.^.^'^,699 


z:iao,946 


Z,266,g.7a 


Zfll9,3m 


■■""^«->:-'-:'-'-v-^^^ 



















Fig. 228. 

Number of cattle and their value in the five principal cattle-producing states. 
Many of these are kept, not on ranches, but on farms in the Eastern states. 



Jiunois 


Iowa 


New York. 


Ohio. 




1,003.^99 


Ssr.eee.aee 

3BI,3SZ 


$34.63^,033 
J" 90.7 3 a 


$93,791,0*6 
eS3A99 


■$Z9.390,eS8 
S*e,74 7 



Fig. 229. 
Number of horses and their value in the five principal horse-producing states. 



Wyominff 




Fig. 230. 
Number of sheep and their value in the five leading sheep-producing states. 



12 ra^j; TiT uo n 




300 400 "^ i) 

87 83 ^9 V 



Fig. 231. 
Maps showing the regions from which much timber is now being obtained. 



BEVIBW 



203 



Peimsytv 



i2e4S7l,6Z4 



Ohio 




^8jr20e8«6 



n.Yn.^ 



Itewnrt $IS,at9,S3 7 
flewJtrzey.$ll,0/6,JtJ 



towns or in the country. Name these occupations. They furnish 
us with the raw materials for food, clothing, and shelter. What raw 
materials enter into each, and whence does each come? 

Cities. — What are the principal occupations in the cities? The 
answer has been repeatedly suggested. What, for instance, are the 
main kinds of business in Duluth? (p. 120.) In Minneapolis? (p. 
124.) In Chicago? (pp. 121-121.) In Buffalo? (p. 74.) In New 
York? (pp. 75-77.) In' Baltimore? (p. 79.) In San Francisco? 
(p. 150.) Tell what is done in various cities with grain, ores, hides, 
cotton, wool, lumber, and fish. 

It is evident that one of the principal occupations in cities is 
MANUFACTURING. Where, for example, is the making of iron goods 
especially important ? Tobacco ? 
Sugar ? Paper ? Farming imple- 
ments ? Furniture ? Freight and 
passenger cars ? Cotton cloth ? 
Woollen cloth? A single large fac- 
tory may employ thousands of work- 
men (p. 53), and where hundreds of 
factories are established, as in New 
York, Chicago, and Philadelphia, 
there must be an enormous population. More than five million 
persons are engaged in manufacturing in the United States and the 
number is constantly increasing. 

A second great occupation in cities is that of buying and sell- 
ing. Although grain, cotton, wool, etc., are produced in immense 
quantities in the country, they are not generally bought and sold 
there. That work must be carried on where there are great numbers 
of people ; for where else could it be done so successfully ? If a per- 
son living in a city should want only a bushel of potatoes, he would not 
go to a farmer for them, but to a store to which many other people 
also go to buy goods. So also, if you were a farmer in Illinois and 
wanted to buy a carload of cattle to fatten, you would not go out 
West to a cattle ranch, but probably to the stock yards at Chicago, 
where many cattle are always to be found. Or if you had a quantity 
of cotton to dispose of, where else could you do it better than in 
some city where cotton is bought and sold, as in New Orleans or 
Memphis ? Not only must there be stores where we can buy what 
we need, but there must also be centres, or cities, where goods may 
be bought and sold on a still larger scale. A city bears much the 



Fig. 233. 

Value of iron manufacturing in the five 
leading iron-manufacturing states. 



204 NORTH AMERICA 

same relation to the country round about that a store does to the 
people who live near enough to trade there. 

Since enormous quantities of raw material must be shijiped into 
the cities for the manufacture of goods, and since most of the finished 
articles are sent away, the business of shipping, or transporting, 
is a third great occupation in cities. Tens of thousands of men are 
employed in loading and unloading cars, boats, and wagons. 

In this country fully four million persons are employed in buy- 
ing, selling, and transporting, or in commerce, as these kinds of 
business together are called. What raw products are taken to 
Detroit, and what finished products are taken away? Answer the 
same in regard to Milwaukee, Peoria, Louisville, Providence, Denver, 
and New Orleans. If your home is in the city, answer the same for 
that ; if not, for the nearest city. 

' Thus there are three leading occupations in cities ; namely, man- 
ufacturing, TRADING, and transporting. Every city has all 
three ; but some that are particularly distinguished for the first are 
known as manufacturing centres ; and others, distinguished 
especially for the second, are known as trade centres. Minneap- 
olis is an example of the former, and St. Paul of the latter. Give 
other examples of each. Those cities, like Boston, New York, Phil- 
adelphia, Baltmiore, Chicago, San Francisco, and Montreal, whose 
location is especially favorable for the shipment of goods, are great 
commercial centres, and usually also manufacturing centres. 
Why? 

The relation between country and city is now clear. Nearly one- 
half of our men are engaged in obtaining raw materials, and the re- 
mainder are mainly engaged in manufacturing them into useful 
articles, in buying, selling, and transporting them. Show by numer- 
ous examples how neither class can do well without the other. 

But while they are so dependent, the life of one is very different 
from that of the other. Recall farm life as described on page 105. 
What idea have you formed of farm life on southern plantations ? 
Of the miner's manner of living? The ranchman's? (p. 114.) The 
lumberman's? (pp. 43-45.) The fisherman's? (pp. 47 and 48.) 

Recall, on the other hand, what was said about life in New York 
City (p. 76). Give your idea of factory life. Of life in trade 
and transportation. 

What attractions and objections do you find in each of these 
several occupations ? Is the work of a farm hand more or less nar- 



REVIEW 205 

rowing than that of a factory hand ? Why ? Suppose that two young 
men are much alike in ability, disposition, and training ; how are 
they liable to grow unlike if one chooses mining for an occupation, 
and the other chooses trade ? Give other instances showing how the 
work that one follows influences his manner of life and development. 

It is difficult to determine which occupation requires the hardest 
work, for success demands one's best effort, no matter what the occu- 
pation may be. But of those living in the city on the one hand, and 
in the country on the other, which are more certain of the ordinary 
necessities of life ? Why ? Which have more comforts ? Why ? 
Which are more independent in general ? Why ? Which have the 
better opportunities for amusement ? Why ? For education ? 
Why ? For homes with plenty of light and fresh air ? Why ? 

For many years the population of cities has been increasing more 
rapidly than that of the country, which suggests that people are 
preferring city to country life. Can you give any reasons for this 
in addition to those already mentioned ? 

Dependence of Different Sections upon one Another. — No one 
locality produces all of the materials needed there. Which of your 
foods are not raised near yonv home ? How about the knives, 
forks, dishes, and spoons ? How about the clothes that you wear ? 

Because of the climate, water power, soil, or for some other 
reason, each part of the country is especially fitted for producing 
one or several things, as eastern Kansas for grain, and western 
Kansas for stock, northern Maine for lumber, etc. Indeed, most of 
the articles used in each part of the country must be brought from 
other places. Name the materials that the Montana ranchman needs 
from the Southern planter ; from New England ; from Minneapolis 
and Chicago. Upon what parts of the United States are the inhabit- 
ants of Florida dependent ? What do they supply in return ? Make 
a list of the materials used in the construction of your house, and, 
as far as possible, determine where each one may have come from. 
The different parts of the country are of vital importance to one 
another, much as different parts of the body are. 

Relation to our Territories and Dependencies. — Despite our broad 
territory and enormous number of products, there are some neces- 
sary articles that are either entirely lacking, or cannot be produced 
in sufficient quantities within our own borders. Name a few (see 
table of imports, p. 462). Mention some that we are therefore glad 
to receive from Alaska, Cuba, Porto Rico, the Hawaiian Islands, 



206 NOBTH AMERICA 

and the Philippines. Mention others that they likewise are glad to 
receive from us. State, then, how the United States and its de- 
pendencies are of advantage to one another. 

Other Countries of North America. — The principal industries in 
southern Canada and Newfoundland are necessarily similar to those 
in the northern United States. What about agriculture there ? (p. 
175.) Where is coal mined? (p. 177.) Precious metal? (p. 177.) 
What about grazing? (p. 175.) Lumbering? (p. 173.) Fishing 
and sealing? (p. 174.) Compare the raw products. of southern 
Canada with those of our Northern States. Name and locate the 
principal cities ; the leading trade route. Mention the chief kinds 
of manufacturing. (For above, see pp. 178-180.) 

Describe the surface of Mexico (p. 183). The climate (p. 184). 
What are the agricultural products from its arid plateaus? (p. 
185.) From its lowlands ? (p. 186.) From the slopes between ? 
(p. 186.) Tell about the forests of Mexico (p. 187). The mining 
(p. 187). Give some reasons why there is' little manufacturing in 
that country (p. 188). Locate the principal cities. 

Name the five republics of Central America. Describe the sur- 
face of the country and the climate (p. 189). Name the principal 
industries (p. 190). Tell about canals across the isthmus (p. 190). 
Mention the largest islands among the West Indies. What are their 
chief industries? (pp. 191-193.) What industries in the United 
States are not found in Canada? In Mexico ? In Central America? 
What industries in any one of the latter countries are not found in 
the United States ? 

Our Relation to Other Countries. — The United States, like one 
small locality, produces far more of some materials than we can con- 
sume, while other important articles must come wholly, or in part, 
from abroad. Give examples of each. If we could not secure a 
market for our products in foreign lands, we should suffer seriously ; 
and, if the foreign countries could not be induced to provide us with 
Avhat we need, we should suffer again. Other countries are in the 
same condition. Show how that is true of Canada ; of Mexico. 
There is excellent reason, therefore, for a constant exchange of goods 
among the nations of the world. How does the size of our country 
give us a great advantage in this respect ? 

We sell more goods to Great Britain than to any other foreign 
land. In fact, hundreds of millions of dollars' worth of cotton, 
wheat, flour, cattle, corn, meat, and oil are sent to that country every 



REVIEW 207 

year (see table of exports, p. 462). We receive in return, large 
quantities of woollen, cotton, and rubber goods, and articles made of 
vegetable fibres, hides, and skins (see table of imports in Appendix) . 
Trade is carried on in the same manner with Germany, France, and 
other countries. The goods tliat we send forth are called exports, 
and those brought in, imports. Examine the tables of exports and 
imports on pp. 462 and 463 to see what we send away and receive, 
as well as the countries with which we trade. 

More than half of all our exports and imports are sent by way of 
New York alone. Why ? Other ports, next in importance, are : Bos- 
ton, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New Orleans, Galveston, and San Fran- 
cisco. The total value of our exports in 1898 was $1,231,482,330 ; 
of our imports, $616,049,654. 

Some imports are permitted to enter the country free ; but upon most 
of them there is a duty, that is, a charge for the privilege of entering the 
country. This duty is a source of income or revenue for the government. 
It is also intended to serve as a protection to home industries by prevent- 
ing foreign products from being sold in our country at a lower rate than 
we can produce them. However, this sometimes causes great hardship. 
For example, a citizen of the United States, living even on the very 
border of Canada, cannot buy from that country such articles as lumber 
and wood pulp without paying a duty upon them. This causes us to pay 
a higher price for some articles than we would have to pay if no duty 
were placed upon them. Therefore, the boundary line between two neigh- 
boring countries is often of real importance as a barrier to free trade. 

Transportation Routes. — The chief inland water routes for trans- 
portation of goods have often been mentioned (Fig. 238). What 
are they ? About twice as much freight is carried over the Great 
Lakes as on the Mississippi system. Mention some of the principal 
kinds carried on each. The fact that the Great Lakes system extends 
so far east and west is of great importance. This route, by furnish- 
ing a cheap means of transportation to the Eastern coast, opens up a 
very productive region in a favorable, temperate climate. Upon 
reacliing the coast these goods may readily be shipped to Europe, 
our principal foreign market. 

It is largely because of these facts that most of the people of the 
country are living either along the northeastern coast or else from 
there westward to the Mississippi. On Figure 208 find the centre 
of population in the United States. 

Figures 227 and 237 show an enormous number of railways in the 
United States. They now carry fully three times as much freight 



208 BEVIEW 

as all the water routes together. In what part of the country are 
most of them fouucl ? Why there ? Which quarter is next best 
supplied with them ? Which portion has fewest lines ? How does 
the location of lines on this figure compare with the location of cities 
on Figure 208 ? What about the direction of a majority of the rail- 
way lines? Count the number of railwaj'^s that reach east and west 
across the western half of the continent (Fig, 227). In what city 
on the Pacific coast does each of these terminate ? 

Influence of Steam and Electricity. — The steam used upon the 
waterways and railways has been one of the most powerful factors 
in populating and developing our country. A century ago it re- 
quired two days to travel from New York to Philadelphia, and six 
days from New York to Boston. In the latter case only two trips 
per week were made by stage. The journeys were not only very 
tiresome, but were also filled with hardships, and often with dan- 
gers. There were but thirteen daily papers in the United States, 
and neither papers nor books could be sent by mail. Letters cost 
from six to twenty -five cents, according to the distance, and, as the 
expense of carrying them was so great, they were not sent from the 
smaller towns until a number were collected. 

Now we can travel as far in an hour as formerly in a day, and 
with much more convenience. There are fully two thousand daily 
papers, and these, as well as letters, may be sent quickly and cheaply 
to every section of the country. We can even send a telegraph mes- 
sage to a distant point in an instant, and can talk by telephone Avith 
a person hundreds of miles away, even recognizing the tones of his 
voice. To one of our ancestors of a century ago either one of these 
wonders, to which we are now so accustomed, would have seemed 
an utter impossibility. 

Influence of Modern Inventions on Mode of Life. — The effect of 
such a mighty change is seen in every direction. Each year thou- 
sands of carloads of fruit are shipped to Eastern cities from Califor- 
nia. If there were no railways, how could it reach these cities ? 
W^hat, then, would be the effect on southern California ? Also, how 
could the corn of the Central States be marketed ? And how could 
furniture, sugar, etc., be brought to the Western farmer's door? 
Trace other results of this change. 

If we were suddenly deprived of our quick transportation, within 
a few days there would be a famine in every large city. Even now, 
when heavy falls of snow block the trains for only a day or two, the 



REVIEW . 209 

supply of milk, meat, and other necessities quickly runs low, and the 
prices rise to several times their ordinary value. 

If we had no railway trains, there might also be extensive famines 
from time to time over large areas of country, as there were in Europe 
in the olden times, and as there are even at present in China. Why 
especially in China ? As it is, however, hundreds of articles of food 
and clothing are quickly brought from distant points at a trifling cost. 
Mention several such articles. No one locality is in danger of suf- 
fering from want of food because, if the supply fails there, it is 
easily obtained from other sections. 

The effect of steam and electricity on the industries and inhabit- 
ants of cities is striking. Persons living scores of miles away often 
do much of their shopping in the cities. Also, owing to trolley lines, 
elevated railways, and other means of rapid transit, those engaged 
in manufacture or commerce are enabled to live many miles distant 
from their places of work and thus secure more healthful homes in 
the suburbs. Because so many people are able to have their homes 
in the suburbs, the cities are not nearly so overcrowded as they other- 
wise would be. 

Influence of our Surroundings on Education and Government. — 
When our Union was formed, more than a century ago, many wise 
persons believed it an almost impossible experiment. Our popula- 
tion was scattered over so many hundred miles along the Atlantic 
coast (Fig. 32) that people living in one part were apt to know and 
care little about those in another part far away. It seemed probable 
that quarrels and wars would arise as a result of differences of opin- 
ion, and therefore that our republican government might be dissolved 
into several governments. 

Nevertheless our boundaries have been so enlarged as to include 
far more territory than was originally thought possible (Fig. 240). 

Aside from that, more than eighteen million foreigners have 
settled in our country since 1821, bringing to our shores all the prin- 
cipal races of mankind (see Appendix, p. xi.), and many of the lead- 
ing languages, religions, and political beliefs of tlie world ; but in 
spite of all this we have kept in such close touch with one another 
that our Union has grown stronger and stronger. 

Each day, by rail and water, articles are being sent to all parts of 
the country. In all the states the people read the same news every 
morning, and whatever books are found especially valuable in one 
section are quickly made known in others. Thus we not only enjoy 



210 NORTH AMEBIC A 

far better opportunities for education than formerly, but we learn to 
knoiv one another ; we have the same thoughts, and we feel a mutual 
sympathy. So far as meeting and understanding one another are 
concerned, our country is really far smaller than it was a hundred 
years ago ; we are living together like one very large family. 

It has been a difficult task to convert people from so many 
quarters of the globe to one common product, called Americans, 
who believe heartily in our republican government (p. 29). But 
the attempt has not been a failure. Many have gone to the farms, 
where they have helped to supply the raw products.; "others have 
gone to the mining regions ; but great numbers have settled in the 
cities, where they are chiefly engaged in work connected with manu- 
facturing and commerce. Some are densely ignorant ; but the great 
majority steadily improve in condition, adopt the American customs 
and ideas, and become good citizens. 




Fig. 234. 



Massachusetts. 


J^nnsylvania. 








S/3Z.367^99 




Jthodeld. 


$36,171,293 


$67,00J,61J 


$3Z^3t023 











Fig. 235. 

Value of the manufacture of textiles (cotton, wool, etc.) in the five leading textile 

manufacturing states. 



Ne-w YorJc 


Pennsylvania 




4 Qi37G.ro 199/ 


JUinois 




46J9ffJ^6,SJ0 


$StOGG.7J7.7l9 






i3,9Sl38Z;58'i 




^B^osm^^'tff 


-T^mmmmwrn mv- \^ 


Q 











Fig. 236. 
Wealth in dollars of the five wealthiest states. 




Fig. 238. 
Navigable rivers represented by beavy liii,es. 



MiddleAtlantic States 



New Un^. States Central States. 




Fig. 239. 

Tbe figures represent the number of miles of railway for every one hundred square miles of 

territory in each of the five groups of states. 




Fig. 240. 
Map to show when and how the United States obtained its territory. 



Paet II 
GENERAL GEOGEAPHY 



THE EARTH'S MOVEMENTS 

jt) Form and Size. — The earth is a sphere having a circumference 
^ of about twenty-five thousand miles, and a diameter of nearly eight 

/ thousand miles. It is slightly flattened at the poles, however, so that 
ji the line extending through the centre, from pole to pole — called the 
A earth's axis — is a little shorter than that extending in the opposite 
direction at the equator. 

The earth is known to be round, not only because people have travelled 
around it, but also because its shadow, as seen in an eclipse, is always 
round. Show how it is true that a sphere is the only body that will always 
cast a round shadow. Give another proof of the spherical form of the 
earth. 

Daily Motion. — The earth is rapidly rotating, that is, turning on 
one of its diameters, called the axis. When we glance out of the 
window of a moving car, the objects we pass appear to be moving in 
the direction opposite to that in which we are travelling. It seems 
as though we were standing still. In a similar way the rotation of 
the earth makes the sun appear to rise and set, and for a long time 
people believed that it was the sun that moved, and not the earth. 

In what direction must the earth rotate, since the sun appears to move 
from east to west ? The period of time required for one rotation is called 
a day. Since the circumference of the earth at the equator is about 
twenty-five thousand miles, how far does a point on the equator move in 
an hour ? In a minute ? 

By rotating a globe or an apple in the sunlight show how day and 
night are caused on the earth. Hold the sphere still ; what would be true 
on opposite sides of the earth if it did not rotate at all ? What might be 
the effect upon life on the earth if the same side were always toward 
the sun ? 

211 



212 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



Yearly Motion. — There are other variations of our light and 
heat besides those due to the earth's rotation. For instance, if we 

could spend a summer with 
the Eskimos in Greenland, 
we should find weeks of con- 
stant day,^ and be able to 
see at midnight as well as at 
midday. Late in the sum- 
mer, the sun begins to set, 
and finally it fails to appear 
even at noon. Then it be- 
comes bitterly cold (Fig. 
241). 

On the other hand, in 
Central America the sun 









..illMh.^ 


Kte. 






r^ 






f 




;!• ^ 






t^LttA 


^ ■■^ 


■K " 


Y- 




\m 


1 


i 




% 


1 



Fig. 241. 

Some of the Eskimos whose homes are in the frigid 
north. The mothers carry the babies in fur hoods 
on their backs. 



reappears every morning m 
the year ; and every noon 
it is almost directly overhead, while for a part of the year it is 
exactly overhead. No snow and ice are seen, and the climate is so 
warm, even during the winter, that 
the inhabitants wear as few clothes 
as possible. Indeed, some savages 
in such hot countries wear almost 
none (Fig. 242). 

Even where each of us lives, 
the period of daylight and the tem- 
perature are changing from week to 
week. Describe these changes as 
you yourself have observed them. 

The causes of these changes are 
indicated in Fig. 243. There the 
earth is represented on September 23 
as receiving sunlight from pole to 
pole. On December 21 the north 
pole is shrouded in darkness, while 
the south pole (which is shut off 
from our view in the figure) is 
within the light. On March 21 the sunlight again extends from pole 
to pole ; and on June 21 the north pole lies fully in the light, while 

1 Exactly at the north pole there are six months of day and six months of night. 




Fm 242. 

Savages whose homes are in the tropical 
zone. Contrast their dress with that 
of the Eskimos (Fig. 241). 



THE EABTH'S movements 



213 



tlie south pole is in darkness. In other words, the earth has a yearly 
motion around the sun, — called its revolution, — and it is the various 
positions that it takes with reference to the sun, while on this jour- 
ney, that cause our changing length of day and our seasons. 

Although the sun is ninety-three million miles from us, the earth 
is moving at such a tremendous rate that it completes one journey 
around the sun, or one revolution, in almost exactly 365 days. This 
explains how we get our year. The almost circular path that the 
earth follows in this revolution is called its orbit. 




Fig. 243. 

To illustrate the revolution of the earth around the sun. The shaded portion represents 
night. The end of the axis around which tlie eai-th rotates is the point where the lines 
come together (the north pole) . At what date is this pole turned toward the sun ? Away 
from it? Neither towards nor away from it? What portions of the earth do the sun's 
rays reach at each of these times ? 



The Attraction of Gravitation. — In its revolution the earth is moving 
at the rate of more than one and a half million miles per day. What 
speed ! And at the same time it is whirling or rotating rapidly on its 
axis, as already explained (see Primary Book, p. 116). 



214 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



As in the case of the earth's rotation, one might ask (Primary Book, 
p. 115), "Why are we not swept from the earth by the wind ? The answer, 
as before, is that the air, and everything else upon the earth, is drawn 
toward it and held in place by the force of gravity, so that all travel 
together in the journey around the sun. 

If the earth is revolving at such a fearful speed, why does not the 
earth itself fly away into space ? As a stone swinging round at the end 
of a string flies off when the string breaks, so it might seem that the 
earth would fly away, since there appears to be nothing holding it to the 
sun. 

But there is something to hold it. It is not a string nor a rope, to be 
sure, but something far stronger. The sun is very much larger than the 
earth, in fact, over a million times as large, and attracts the earth to it, 
as the force of gravity attracts men and houses to the earth. This attrac- 
tion of gravitation, which the sun exerts upon the earth, is what prevents 
the latter from flying far off into space ; it holds the earth as firmly as the 
string holds the stone. 



[>jor-t)i Po/e 



Length of Day and Night; the Seasons. — On September 23 the 
sun's ray's are vertical at the equator (Fig. 243), i.e. directly over 
the heads of the people living along that line. Then the days and 

nights are equal over all the 
earth. This time is called the 
autumnal equinox (the -latter 
from tvv^o words meaning equal 
and nighf). 

On December 21 the sun's 
rays are vertical at the Tropic 
of Capricorn, and all the region 
included in the Antarctic Circle 
is within the light. That is the 
date for the beginning of winter 
in our hemisphere and for our 
shortest day. After that, on 
March 21, the sun's rays are 
again vertical at the equator. 
This time, called the vernal equi- 
nox., is the beginning of our 
spring. Then our days gradu- 
ally lengthen until June 21, when the sun's rays are vertical over 
the Tropic of Cancer and light up all the region within the Arctic 
Circle. That is the beginning of our summer. 




A map of the zones. Make a drawing 
to this. 



similar 



THE earth's movements 215 

The Zones. — The sun gives heat as well as light, and the direc- 
tion of its rays determines the boundaries of the zones. In Fig. 244 
the Torrid Zone marks that portion of the earth's surface over which 
the sun's rays are vertical at some time in every year. On that 
account it is very hot there. The north frigid and south frigid zones 
mark the areas about the poles that lie entirely in the light at one 
period and in the dark at another. But the sun's rays are always 
very slanting there, so that the temperature is always cold. 

Show the boundaries of the temperate zones, and explain why 
these zones are called temperate. 

Review Questions. — (1) AYhat is the earth's axis ? (2) What was formerly 
believed about the earth's movement? (3) In what direction does the earth 
rotate ? (4) Tell about variations of light and heat, (a) among the Eskimos, 
(b) in Central America, (c) at your home. (5) What other motion besides rota- 
tion has the earth ? (6) What determines the length of our year ? (7) Why do 
we not notice the rapid movement of the earth ? (8) What prevents the earth 
from flying off into space? (9) Tell about the direction of the sun's rays. 
(10) On December 21. (11) March 21. (12) June 21. (13) Name the zones, 
and give reasons for their boundaries. 

Suggestions. — (1) Find the north star. (2) Write out the observations 
you have made about the moon. (3) Show by a globe, or a ball, how the two 
movements of the earth, rotation and revolution, can be going on at the same time. 

(4) How long is your day at present ? Are the days growing longer or shorter ? 

(5) During which months do they grow longer ? (6) During which months 
shorter? (7) Find out why the earth is slightly flattened at the poles. (8) What 
might be some of the effects if each rotation of the earth lasted longer than 
twenty-four hours ? (9) If much less ? (10) At what time of day does your 
shadow always point directly north? (11) Notice how your shadow changes with 
the season in early morning ; at noon ; in the evening. (12) Tell about the direc- 
tion and length of a man's shadow at noon on December 21 at various points 
between the poles. (13) On June 21. (14) On September 23. (15) How long 
is our longest night? Our shortest? (16) Which zone experiences the slightest 
change of seasons? Why? (17) What advantages and disadvantages do you see 
in that fact for people living there? (18) Is it once or twice each year that the 
vertical rays of the sun fall upon any one place in the Torrid Zone? (19) Write 
a story telling about some changes that you have noticed, in plants and animals, 
which have been caused by the change in season. 



II. WINDS AND RAIN 

Winds 

Review. — Our previous study of geography has shown that 
very regular winds blow over a considerable part of North America. 
For example, the West Indies, Central America, -and Southern 
Mexico receive their winds generally from the northeast^ while on 




Fig. 245. 
To illustrate how the air moves in a room heated by a stove. 

the western side of the continent, all the way from San Francisco 
to Alaska, they blow quite regularly from a ivesterly quarter. On 
the other hand, in the eastern part of the United States, the winds 
are irregular in direction, although prevailing from the west. Let 
us examine into the causes of these movements of the atmosphere. 

Effect of a Stove. — As a beginning of the inquiry, we will 
consider the currents of air produced by a hot stove in a room 
(Fig. 245). As the air near the stove is warmed, it expands and 

216 



NORTH POLE 




WINDS AND BAIN 217 

grows' lighter. Then the cooler air settles down and flows in, 
forcing upward that which has been warmed. The latter grows 
cooler in contact with the cool ceiling and walls of the room ; and, 
being made denser and heavier on that account, it again settles 
toward the floor and then once more moves toward the stove. In 
such a room you can easily observe how much warmer the air is 
near the ceiling, where it has risen from the stove, than near the 
floor at some distance from the stove. 

"Winds of the Earth. — The greater winds of the earth may be 
compared to this movement of air in a room, the torrid zone, warmed 
by the sun's rays, taking 

„ - CALMS 

the place oi the stove. ^^■^-^^^^^ ^__,^4i,^, 

There, owing to the tor- ^vp"-", ^^',^C^— c^ ^\% 

rid heat, the atmosphere 

becomes expanded and 

light. The heavier air 

to the north and south 

flows in, pushing the 

light air away and pro- Fig. 246. 

ducino" winds known as Diagram to show, by arrows, the movement of the greater 
,, , , , 7 ,~f^. winds of the earth. 

the trade tvmas (-rig- 

246), which begin in the temperate zones, hundreds of miles away. 

Since the heated air must escape somewhere, it rises far above 
the surface, and then moves back in the same direction from which 
it came, forming the return trades or anti-trade winds " (Fig. 246). 
The atmosphere extends many miles above the earth, so that there is 
plenty of room for two winds blowing in opposite directions, one 
above the other. 

In Cuba, the Caribbean Sea, and elsewhere, where the trade winds 
at the surface are blowing toward the southwest, one notices that the 
clouds far up in the sky are steadily borne in the opposite direction by 
the anti-trades. Also, when volcanoes in Central America have been in 
eruption, the ashes that were blown out from them have been carried 
hundreds of miles in a direction opposite to that of the prevailing trade 
winds at the surface. 

Being cooled on account of its great height, the air of the anti- 
trades slowly settles, some of it coming to the surface at about a 
third of the distance to the poles. There it spreads out, a part con- 
tinuing on toward the poles, a part returning to the equator as the 
trade winds (Fig. 246). 



218 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

As you see, the correspondence between these currents m the 
atmosphere and those in the room is quite close. In both cases air 
moves in toward a heated place, then up, then outward and down, 
and once more inward toward the heated part. Make a drawing to 
illustrate these four directions of movement of the air. 

Effect of Rotation. — There are differences, however, and one of them 
is especially important. In the case of the room, the currents move 
directly toward the stove ; then, after rising, directly away from it. If the 
earth stood perfectly still, the trade winds would doubtless blow directly 
toward the equator from the north and south and the others directly 
away from it. 

The daily rotation of the earth, from west to east, greatly interferes 
with that movement. Because of rotation, the trade winds are turned, 
or deflected, from their straight course toward the equator. Those in the 
northern hemisphere are turned to their right, so that they come from the 
northeast; and those in the southern hemisphere are turned toward their 
left, and therefore come from the southeast. In other words, the earth 
leaves them behind (Fig. 247). 

The direction of the anti-trades is also changed toward the right in 
the northern hemisphere, where they blow from the southwest, and 
toward the left in the southern hemisphere, where they blow from the 
northwest. Thus the anti-trades blow over the same route as the trade 
winds, but in the opposite direction. We can only state the facts here, 
for the explanation is far too difficult to give. 

Wind Belts. — Now we see why the West Indies, Central America, 
and Southerii Mexico receive such regular winds from the northeast, 
for they lie in the range of the trade winds just described. The 
prevailing west winds of the Pacific coast are a part of the air of the 
anti-trades that has settled to the surface and is moving on in a great 
whirl around the poles. It is known as the belt of prevailing ivester- 
lies because the air moves so steadily from a westerly quarter. 

If you watch the higher clouds you will find, in most parts of the 
United States, that they are moving from the west toward the east ; 
and the winds at the surface are also more often from the west than 
from any other quarter. This section, including northern United 
States and Canada, in which the prevailing winds are so nearly from 
the west, is known as the region of prevailing westerlies. 

What has been said about the winds of North America applies, 
with some exceptions, to other parts of the world ; in other words, 
there are several belts of regular winds extending around the earth. 
Figure 249 shows these quite clearly. Point out the belt of trade 



WINDS AND RAIN 



219 



winds north of the equator. Point out the prevailing westerlies. 
Point out the two corresponding belts of wind on the south side of 
the equator. Notice how much more definitel}^ these are all shown 
over the ocean than over the land. 



Winds are much more steady on the ocean than on the land for sev- 
eral reasons, the principal one being that the temperature of the water 
does not change so quickly as that of the land. On land one place may 
become much warmer than another not far away, and then winds blow 
toward the warmer section. This often changes the direction of the regu- 
lar winds. 

So steady are the prevailing westerlies over the ocean, that, in the 
southern hemisphere, where there is little land, they almost always blow 
from the west. Indeed, it is said that vessels, choosing a course south of 
Africa and South America, 
can sail around the world 
with fair winds almost all 
the way, if they go toward 
the east; but if they sail in 
the opposite direction, the 
winds are against them. 

All these belts of wind 
owe their existence to the 
differing temperatures of 
the several zones ; and 
since the sun, which is 

the cause of these zones Diagram to show the position of the trade wiud belts 
, , „ . and the belt of calms in summer. Compare with 

has shone tor millions or Figure 248. 
years, and will probably 

continue to shine for millions more, we may be certain that these 
great winds are permayient winds. The currents of air in a room 
cease when the stove grows cold ; but, for ages to come, the sun will 
heat the torrid zone more than the temperate. Thus the trade winds 
will be kept in motion day and night, winter and summer, as they 
now are, and as they were when they helped Columbus on his ven- 
turesome voyage across the Atlantic. 

Belt of Calms and Belts of Horse Latitudes. — Besides the four 
belts of winds just mentioned there are three belts of calms and 
light, variable winds. As the trade winds approach the central 
line of the heated belt, or the heat equator^ they travel more 
slowly. Then, owing to expansion from heat, and to pressure 




Fig. 247. 



220 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



/V R^ITE RN'^P'R E VA I LI.NG 




NO RTH^ HORSE-: r-i-" , 



from the colder air behind, the air rises over a broad area to a 
great height. In this belt of rising air, whatever winds are felt 
are light and changeable, and calms often prevail ; hence the 
name belt of calms, as shown in figures 246 and 249. The width 

of this belt is several 
hundred miles. 

Northern Mexico and 
Southern California are 
situated in another belt of 
light winds with frequent 
calms. Here, however, as 
stated before (p. 217), the 
air of the anti-trades is 
settling toward the earth, a 
part to return as trade winds 
to the belt of calms, and a 
part to continue onward as 
the prevailing westerlies. 
This is known as the region of the horse latitudes.^ Point out the 




Fig. 248. 

Diagram to show the position of the belt of calms 
and the trade winds in winter. Compare with 
Figure 247. 



belt on figures 246 and 249. 
south side of the equator. 



Show the corresponding belt on the 



Effect of Revolution. — The belt of most intense heat is not always 
in exactly the same part of the earth, being north of the equator in June, 
when the sun is vertical at the Tropic of Cancer, and south of it in Decem- 
ber, when the sun's rays are vertical at the Tropic of Capricorn. This 
causes all these belts to change their position somewhat, being farther 
north in our summer than in our winter (Figs. 247 and 248). The effects 
of this fact are very important, as we shall see (p. 224). 



Rain 

Causes for Rain. — Knowing the wind belts that encircle the 
earth, we have a key to the principal rain belts ; for winds are the 
water carriers of the earth. Water which is evaporated from 
the surface of the oceans and lands, is borne along in the air. As 
rain or snow it descends to the earth, abundantly along most coasts, 
and, usually, less liberally toward the interior of the continents. 



1 Called horse latitudes because sailing vessels, carrying horses from New England 
to the West Indies in the early days, were so delayed by the calms that the horses had 
to be thrown overboard when the drinking water gave out. 




.2 S 



(11 1^ 



^ s 



^ -^ 



be O 



O >^ c3 

. TS O 
o ^ •" 



WINDS AND BAIN 221 

It is an important fact that there can be more water vapor in warm 
than in cool air. Therefore, whenever air is cooled sufficiently some of 
the water vapor which it bears is condensed. For example, vapor con- 
denses on an ice-water pitcher because the air next it is cooled ; and dew 
forms on grass when the air near the ground grows cool in the evening. 
In a like manner the vapor in our breath forms a little cloud when the 
breath in winter is cooled by mixture with the cold outside air. 

Rain is usually caused by the cooling of air which is rising to 
higher levels and therefore expanding. When you open the valve 
of a bicycle tire, the outrushing air expands and grows cool ; and 
if you place your finger over the valve, you can feel the coolness. 
In a similar way, when air rises above the surface of the earth it 
expands because there is less air above to press upon it. Then it 
grows cool ; and while doing so, some of its vapor may be condensed 
to form clouds and raindrops. So whenever air from the damp 
oceans is rising over highlands, or whenever it is being raised over 
warm lands by the cooler air that pushes underneath, as in the belt 
of calms, rainfall naturally results. Briefly, — when air rises, it 
expands and cools ; and then rain commonly follows. 

Oil the other hand, air that is settling grows warmer, and instead 
of giving up its vapor, it becomes dry and clear. This may again 
be illustrated by reference to the bicycle ; for when air is pumped 
into the tire, the pump becomes warm as the air is compressed. In 
alike manner, air that is descending toward the earth's surface is 
compressed and warmed because of the increasing pressure of the 
atmosphere above. Since there can be more vapor in warm than in 
cool air, when air flows down the mountain slopes, or descends from 
high altitudes, as in the horse latitudes, clouds disappear and water 
is evaporated from the ground. Briefly, — tvhen air descends, it becomes 
denser and grows ivarmer ; then the sky is clear and the weather dry. 

Rain Belts in North America. — These facts have been well 
illustrated in the rains of North America. The northeast trade 
winds, having gathered a large amount of vapor from the Atlantic 
Ocean, the Carribbean Sea, and Gulf of Mexico, deposit it on the 
windward slopes of the West Indies, Southern Mexico, and Central 
America (Fig. 251). The southwestern slopes of these islands, 
however, receive a smaller quantity, and the western coast of Mexico 
is therefore arid. The prevailing westerlies, having travelled a 
long distance over the Pacific, likewise cause heavy rains along the 
western coast of North America (Fig. 252). But the land farther 



222 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



til Desert 

Light Rainfall 

I \Moderate •• 
Heauy •• 

Very Heavy " 




100 Longitude 80 Weat 



from 40 Qteoowicli 



Fig. 251. 

The rainy east coasts and arid west coasts of the 
wind belts. Also the rainy belt of calms of 
America. 

northern South America by the 

Hawaiian Islands, also lying within 

them, especially on 

the windward side 

of the highlands, 

just as in the West 

Indies. 

But the north- 
east trade winds of 
the Old World de- 
posit little moisture, 
as is clearly shown 
by Figures 250 and 
253. One reason 
is that they blow 
largely over land, 
rather than over 
water ; it is mostly 
level land, too. 
Another very im- 
portant reason is The heavy rainfall 
, , . . the rising coast, 

that the air is mov- is the case where 



east groAvs more arid, be- 
cause these winds also lose 
their moisture in passing 
over the land. Northern 
Mexico and southwestern 
United States, lying within 
the horse latitudes, where 
the air is descending, re- 
ceive very little rain and 
are arid (Fig. 252). 

Other Rainy and Arid 
Regions of Northern Hemi- 
sphere. — Other regions 
lying within these belts 
illustrate the same prin- 
ciples. For example, note 
(Fig. 251) what heavy 
rains are brought to 
northeast trade winds. The 
their range, are kept moist by 



trade- 
South 




Fig. 252. 

where the preyailing westerlies blow over 
What is the condition farther east ? What 
the trade winds blow ? Why ? 



WINDS AND BAIN 



223 



^ 



W ... . l.,,^^S|^ 



'northeast, ^ 

Wit 



ing from a cooler to a warmer region and is therefore not forced 
to give up its -moisture. On the contrary, it can take more vapor 
and is steadily evaporating water. Thus the trade winds are drying 
winds on the land, and this accounts for the desert of Sahara and 
other deserts. Europe is affected by the 'prevailing westerlies much 
as western North America is. But its three southern peninsulas, 
like southern California, lie partly within the horse latitudes, and 
their southern portions are much affected by drought. 

South of the Equator. — South of the equator we find the south- 
east trade winds causing heavy rains on the east coast of South 
America (Fig. 251).; then 
proceeding across the con- 
tinent, they cause other 
heavy rains in the neigh- 
borhood of the Andes ; but 
parts of Peru and Chile 
on the western side of 
the mountains are left 
to suffer from drought 
although within sight of 
the greatest ocean in the 
world. Australia, lying 
in the same belt of winds, 
is similar. But this time 
the loftiest highlands are 
close to the east coast, 
so that nearly all the 
remainder of the country suffers for want of rain (Fig. 254). 

Belt of Calms. — The belt of calms is the most rainy of all 
the belts (Figs. 251, 253, and 254), because its hot, moisture-laden 
air is rising and cooling. After a clear night in that region, the 
sun usually rises in a cloudless sky. As the morning advances 
and the heat grows more intense, the damp air rises more rapidly; 
then small clouds appear and grow steadily until rain falls from 
them. Showers occur practically every day, increasing in the 
afternoon. When the sun sets and the air rises less actively, the 
clouds melt away, the stars appear, and the night is as clear as 
before. Our hot, muggy summer days, with heavy thunder showers 
in the afternoon and evening, illustrate the weather that is repeated 
day after day in this belt of calms. 




HlOesect 
\^L!ght Rainfall 
I J Moderate " 
mWeaoy " 

^9 Very Heavy •' 



Fig. 253. 

To illustrate the desert regions in the trade wind and 
horse latitude belts of Africa. Also to show the 
heavy rainfall in the belt of calms. Find the simi- 
lar belts on Figures 251, 252, and 254. 



224 



GENERAL GEOGBAPHY 



If^-^ yf ^^^oTt^a'^t' 



V/? A D'il 



It is the Iieavy rain there that supplies the dampness necessary for 
the dense jungles *of the tropical forest of the Amazon valley, Cen- 
tral Africa, and the East 
Indies (Fig. 250). 

Migration of Rain Belts. 
■ — The statement has been 
already made (p. 220) that 
the wind belts shift north- 
ward in summer and south- 
Avard in winter. One of 
the most important effects 
of this change is upon the 
rainfall. In the torrid 
zone, for example, many 
places are within the belt 

of calms during the sum- 
Showing the heavy rainfall on the east-facing coast of ,-,,0,, ^-P fliOTV l-,aTYTl'c.1^1-.QT.Q 

Australia where the trade winds blow. Notice also •- ' 

the arid interior and west coast. What is the con- and are Swept by the dry- 
dition in the belt of calms? What resemblance do • ^ ^ • ^^. ^ 

you see to Figure 252 ? & 

months, thus dividing the 
year into wet and dry seasons. The part of northern Africa lying 
between the Sahara and the Sudan affords an instance of this (Figs. 
255 and 256). 




fMl-igM Rainfall 
\ \ Moderate " 
'^Heaoy 

Very Meauy " 



Fig. 254. 




Fig. 255. 
Winds and rainfall in South America and Africa from December to February. 

Eastern United States and Canada. — Thus far only the regular 
wind and rain belts have been considered, and no explanation has 
been made of the condition of variable Avinds in our Eastern States. 
One might expect that the west winds, so dry after passing over 



WINDS AND RAIN 



225 



the highlands of western United States, would continue onward 
and cause our northeastern states to be arid also. But we know, 




I -:-;:! LIGHT RAINFALL 
t^m MODERATE 
HEAVY 



Fig. 256. 

Winds^'and rainfall in South America and Africa from June to August. Compare with 
Figure 2.55 to see how the belts of heavy rain have migrated as the wind belts have 
shifted with the change of season. 

in fact, that abundant rains fall in this section, as shown by Figure 
257. We know, also, that there are no very regular winds over 




Fig. 257. 

A map to show the rainfall of the United States in inches; that is, the number of inches 
of water that would collect all over the surface in a year if all the rain remained where 
it fell. 

this vast area ; on the contrary, both winds and temperature are 
quite changeable. In any particular locality on one day it may be 
warm and pleasant, with a south wind ; the next day a cool, dry 
wind blows from the northwest ; after two or three days this gives 

Q 



226 



GENERAL GEOGBAPHY 



place to a cloudy sky and rain, brought on by south or east wmds ; 
and then fair, cool weather sets in, with northwest winds again. 

Let us inquire into the cause of these changes. From time to 
time out in the northwest there comes to be a place, or an area, of low 




Fig. 258. 

A section through a cyclonic storm to show the immense area of clouds and rain. A repre- 
sents the Appalachian Mountains ; M, the Mississippi River. The direction of the winds 
is shown by the arrows. 

pressure (Fig. 259) ; that is, an area where the air is lighter than that 
over the surrounding region. The air from the surrounding country, 
where the pressure is greater, hurries toward the low-pressure area, 
even from hundreds of miles away, cau.sing winds which on the south 
side blow from the south, on the east side from the east, and so forth 




Fig. 259. 

A weather map of the United States on a winter's day. The lines are lines of equal air 
pressure, — the lower the figure, the lighter the air (29.5 representing lighter air than 
29.7). The pressure is determined by an instrument called the barometer. Study this 
map carefully and tell about the air pressure, winds, temperature, and rain. 

(Fig. 259). Toward the place where the pressure is low, the air is 
flowing in from all sides, then rising. As it rises, the vapor condenses, 
forming clouds and rain, as in the belt of calms. Such an area of low 
pressure, with its clouds and rain, is known as a cyclonic storm area 
Fig. 258); and it is during these storms that most of the rain of 
northeastern United States and Canada comes. 



WINDS AND RAIN 



227 



Instead of remaining in one place, the cyclonic storms steadily 
travel onward, usually beginning in the northwest and alioays pass- 
ing eastward (Fig. 260). The paths followed by the storm centres 
generally pass over the Great Lakes, down the St. Lawrence Valley 
to the ocean. They move eastward because the prevailing westerlies 
carry them along ; indeed, these great, whirling, cyclonic storms are 
apparently eddies in the prevailing westerlies, similar to the eddies 
in the current of a stream. 

The area of country upon which rain may be falling from the 
clouds of one of these storms is sometimes very great, places fully a 




Fig. 260. 

Weather map for the day following that of Figure 259. Study this carefully, and tell how 
it differs from Figure 259. 



thousand miles apart sometimes receiving rain at the same time 
(Fig 258). As the storm moves eastward, it grows clear on the 
western side, while the cloudy and rainy parts appear farther and 
farther eastward (Figs. 259 and 260). 

The vapor is brought toward the storm centre from the Gulf 
and the Atlantic Ocean, being carried by the winds for hundreds 
of miles, even into Canada. The fact that there is no high moun- 
tain range extending across southern United States is of great im- 
portance. If there were such mountains, instead of the low Appa- 
lachians and the open plains of the Mississippi Valley, the winds 
could not carry their vapor so far, but would drop it on the coast 
side, leaving the interior a desert. 



228 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

Not only are rains caused by these storms, but hot spells and other 
changes as well. Warm winds, blowing toward the low pressure areas 
from the south, are the cause of the winter thaws and the summer hot 
spells in the Eastern States. It is during these hot spells that thunder 
storms come ; also, in some places, come tornadoes, often called " cyclones," 
in which the winds blow so fiercely that houses are torn to pieces. 

After a low pressure area has passed eastward and the storm is over, 
the wind generally blows from the west. This causes cool, dry weather 
in summer, and cold snaps in winter. Then it is said that a cold wave 
has come ; and this, sweeping over the East, and even far into the South, 
often does great damage to fruit trees and other delicate plants. 

Weather Maps. — Figure 259 shows a cyclonic storm in the northwest, 
the arrows indicating how the winds blow in from all sides toward the 
centre of low pressure. Farther east is a region of high pressure. In 
Figure 260, the high and low pressure areas are again represented; but, 
since it is a day later, they have moved eastward ; and the following day 
they would be still farther east. You see from these maps how the 
direction of the wind for any one locality has changed as the low press- 
ure areas have passed over the country. 

These storms are so regular, and their importance is so great, that the 
United States government has established a Weathei' Bureau which employs 
a large force of men, stationed in different parts of the countr^^, to observe 
the pressure of air, direction of wind, etc., and to telegraph the facts to 
Washington. These observations, made at the same time at all stations, 
furnish information which enables men to foretell the weather. Their 
predictions are greatly aided by the fact that all of the storms and high 
pressure areas will move eastward. 

Maps, similar to Figures 259 and 260, called iveather maps, are also sent 
out. By the predictions of the Weather Bureau, farmers and gardeners 
are warned against damaging frosts, and sailors against severe storms. 
Hundreds of thousands of dollars are saved in this manner every year. 
Especially valuable service has been rendered by the Weather Bureau 
in predicting the very fierce hurricanes that arise in the West Indies and 
sometimes do great damage there, as well as on our own coast. These 
resemble the cyclonic storms, but are much more destructive. 

Since the storms and high pressure areas have so great an influence on 
our weather, you will find it of interest to study the weather yourself. 
Watch the changes in wind, temperature, clouds, and rain ; and if there 
is a barometer at hand, observe how it changes as the high and low 
pressure areas come and go. 

Cyclonic Storms in Europe. — Europe is also largely under the in- 
fluence of the prevailing westerlies ; and cyclonic storms often cross 
the ocean and reach far into Eurasia (Fig. 261). There, as here, the 
extent of the country upon which rain may be falling from the clouds 
of one of these storms is sometimes very great. The weather like- 



WINDS AND EAIN 



229 



wise is made changeable by these storms. That is, in any particular 
locality it may be warm and pleasant one day, stormy the next, 
then clear and cool, or cold. Similar cyclonic storms develop in the 
prevailing westerly belt of the southern hemisphere, where they 
bring changes of weather to southern South America, Australia, 
and the islands of the great 
Southern Ocean. 

Sea and Land Breezes ; 
Monsoons. — There is one 
other great source of dis- 
turbance of the regular 
wind belts of the earth 
and of the rain belts that 
are dependent upon them. 
This is found in the dif- 
ference in temperature be- 
tween land and water. 

Land warms and cools 
much more quickly than 
water. The land along the 
seashore on a hot summer 
morning soon becomes 
warm, and the air above it 
is heated, as over a stove, 

,1 , • , 1 1 A cyclonic storm in Europe which came from the ocean. 

SO tnat It expands ana r^j^^ heavy black line shows the course followed by 

grows light ; but that over its centre. Notice how the winds blow toward the 

,1 , .1 centre. 

the water remains cool, 

like the sea itself. This cooler air then pushes in toward the shore ; 
and thus a breeze from the sea, or a sea breeze, is createdo In 
summer, such a breeze is frequently felt at the seashore and along 
the shores of large lakes, and it helps to make the temperature 
agreeable. At night, the land cools more rapidly than the sea ; and 
then the cool air from the land moves out toward the sea, forming a 
land breeze. 

Likewise, in summer the continents as a whole become warmer 
than the oceans ; in winter they become cooler. And in some parts 
of the world these differences create winds on an enormous scale. 
Such winds exist in Mexico and our Gulf states ; but in Asia they 
are far more important. 

The interior of that continent is so far from the ocean, that there 




Fig. 261. 



230 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 




Fig. 309. 



The winds and rainfall during the summer monsoon 
of India. 



are naturally very great extremes of temperature. During the win- 
ter, the heavy air over the cold land settles down as drying air, and 

presses outward beneath 
the warmer air which lies 
over the ocean. This pro- 
duces dry land winds. In 
summer, on the other hand, 
the air over the cool water 
crowds in, raises the hot 
air of the continent, and 
produces ocean winds and 
rain. This is well illus- 
trated in the southern part 
of Asia. Heated by the 
nearly vertical rays of the 
sun during the northern 
summer, the land there be- 
comes warmer than the 

ocean. Toward this heated area the cooler air from the Indian 

Ocean crowds in, causing ocean winds. 

This makes the summer winds opposite in direction to those of 

winter, when the air from the cold lands of interior Asia is flowing 

out toward the warmer 

Indian Ocean (Fig. 263). 

"Winds of this kind, which 

blow in opposite directions 

in different seasons, are 

better developed in India 

than in any other part of 

the earth, and it was there 

that they received the name, 

monsoon winds. The term 

monsoon is now applied 

to inward-flowing summer 

^ Fig. 263. 

winds and outward-flowing ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^.^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^.^^^ ^^^ ^.^.^^^^ ^^ 

India. Compare with Figure 262, and notice espe- 
cially how very light the rainfall is in one season 
and how heavy it is in the opposite season. 




wdnter winds of any large 
mass of land. 

When the summer mon- 
soons blow, the rainy season comes in India (Fig. 262). The rainfall 
is especially heavy where the moisture-laden air ascends the steep 



WINDS AND RAIN 231 

slope of the Himalayas. In one part of this district, opposite the 
head of the Bay of Bengal, there is three times as much rain in 
July alone as falls in well-watered portions of the United States 
during the entire year. The winter monsoon, on the other hand, is 
so dry that vegetation withers and the soil becomes parched and 
cracked, as in a desert (Fig. 263). 

While the north and south temperate zones are both called temperate, 
and have many features in common, they are quite unlike in their winds. 
In the northern hemisphere the broad continents become very hot in 
summer and cold in winter. Since the temperature of the oceans remains 
more uniform, the regular winds are greatly interfered with, as by the 
monsoons. In the south temperate zone, on the other hand, there is little 
land and a vast expanse of ocean. The temperature of the water changes 
but little, and the narrow lands have their temperature largely determined 
winds from the oceans. In the south temperate zone, therefore, there by 
is little chance for monsoons. 

Review Questions : (1) Tell about the directions of the regular winds of 
Noi'th America. (2) Describe the circulation of air in a room heated by a stove. 

(3) Compare this circulation of air with that in the regular winds of the earth. 

(4) What effect has rotation on the direction of these winds ? (5) What are the 
names of the regular winds of North America, and over what sections of the 
continent do they blow? (6) Locate and describe the wind belts of the earth. 
(7) What proofs have we that these are permanent winds ? (8) Tell about the 
movement of air in the belt of calms. (9) In the horse latitudes. (10) What is 
the effect of the earth's revolution on the location of all of these belts? (11) Tell 
about the causes of rain. (12) Show how the trade winds and westerlies affect 
the rainfall of North America. (13) What about the rainfall in northern South 
America and in the Hawaiian Islands? (14) How do you account for the desert 
of Sahara ? (1.5) Tell about the rainfall in Europe. (16) In South America, just 
south of the equator, and in Australia. (17) In the belt of calms. (18) Show how 
the migration of the wind belts affects rainfall, and give an example. (19) Tell 
about the winds and rain in eastern United States and Canada. (20) About 
weather maps, and the value of the Weather Bureau. (21) What about the 
cyclonic storms in Europe ? (22) Give the cause of sea and land breezes. (23) Of 
monsoons. Give example. (24) Why do monsoons interfere with the regular 
winds much less in the southern than in the northern hemisphere ? 

SuGGESTioxs. — (1) Estimate the number of barrels of water that falls on an 
acre of ground, or upon a city block, in one year, where the rainfall is forty 
inches. (2) How is a movement of air secured in your schoolroom in order to 
ventilate it? (3) Make a drawing to show the direction of the regular winds 
of the world. (4) Watch the higher clouds to see in what direction they are 
moving. (5) Read once more the section on "Air " in the Primary Book, page 71. 
(6) W^rite an account of the change in the weather for five days in succession : — 
the wind direction and force; the clouds; rain; temperature; and, if possible, the 
air pressure. (7) Read the chapter on cyclonic storms in Tarr's First Book of 
Physical Geography, pp. 102-125. 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 



III. OCEAN MOVEMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION OF 

TEMPERATURE 

Like the air, the ocean water is in motion, its three principal 
movements being wind waves, tides, and ocean currents. 

Wind Waves 

Waves are formed by winds which blow over the surface of the water 
and ruffle it, sometimes, during storms, causing it to rise and fall from 
twenty to forty feet. 

In the open ocean, waves are rarely very dangerous to large vessels ; 
but upon the seashore, they do great damage to vessels and even to the 
coast itself, wearing away the rocks and dragging the fragments out to 
sea. The constant beating of the waves is slowly eating the coast away. 

Tides 

What the Tides are. — People living upon the seacoast are famil- 
iar with the fact that the ocean water rises for about six hours and 
then slowly falls. This rising and falling of the water twice each 
day forms what is known as the tide. For a long time men were 
puzzled to explain this : it was called the breathing of the earth, and 
by certain uncivilized races it is to this day thought to be caused by 
some great animal. 

As a result of careful study, we have learned that the tides are 
caused by the moon and the sun, especially the former. Each of 
these bodies is pulling upon the earth, by the attraction of gravi- 
tation, as a horseshoe magnet pulls upon a piece of iron. When the 
sun and moon pull upon the earth, the ocean, being a liquid that can 
be moved, is drawn slightly out of shape. This causes two great 
swells, or waves, many hundreds of miles broad, to pass around the 
earth, following the moon. When these swells reach the shores, 
they cause the rise of water known as the tide. 

Height of the Tidal Wave. — The tidal wave is only two or three 
feet high upon headlands which project into the open ocean ; but it 
rises a great deal higher in many bays. There the wave is raised 
higher because the space that it occupies becomes narrower near 

232 



OCEAN MOVEMENTS 233 

the head of the bay. In some such places, as in the Bay of Fundy, 
the tide reaches a height of forty or fifty feet. 

The height of the tide also varies from day to day, for the moon and 
sun, which combine to form it, do not always work together. At new moon 
and full moon, when the earth, moon, and sun are nearly in a straight line, 
the moon and sun pull together and make the tidal wave higher than at 
the quarter. The high range of tides at full and new moon are called 
spring tides, those at the quarters, neap tides. 

. Ocean Currents 

Cause of Ocean Currents. — The winds which blow over the 
ocean, forming waves, also drive the water before them. You may 
do this in a small way by blowing on the surface of a pail of water. 
This starts a current, or drifts of surface water in the direction that 
the air is moving. Where the Avinds are steady, as in the trade 
wind belts, or moderately steady, as in the prevailing westerlies, 
there is a permanent drift of water, pushed along by the prevailing 
winds. These form the great system of ocean currents (Fig. 267) 
which have such an important influence on the earth. 

In our study of North America it was several times necessary to 
refer to the Gulf Stream and the Labrador Current. We will now 
study the currents on each side of our continent more fully. 

The North Atlantic Eddy. — In the eastern part of the Atlantic 
where the trade winds blow, the surface water drifts slowly in the 
direction of the trade winds ; that is, toward the belt of calms 
(Fig. 249). It then drifts westward, as a great equatorial drift, 
until the easternmost extremity of South America interferes with its 
course. There the drift of water is divided, a part being turned 
southward, while the greater portion proceeds northwestward. 

The part that flows northward is deflected toward the right 
by the effect of rotation, as the winds are (p. 260); and the part 
that flows into the South Atlantic is turned to the left, also by the 
effect of rotation. Therefore, the northern drift, instead of coming 
near to the mainland of North America, keeps turning to the right, 
crossing the Atlantic to Europe. It then passes southward, and 
finally returns to the trade wind belt where it started, having made 
a complete circuit. (Figs. 264 and 267.) 

Coming from the equatorial region, this water is warm, and in it live 
countless millions of animals and floating plants. Among the latter, one 
of the most abundant is a seaweed, called Sargassum, which is thrown into 



234 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



the middle of this great eddy. There it has collected until it now forms 
a " grassy " or " Sargasso " sea, hundreds of square miles in extent. Since 
the "Sargasso" Sea lies directly between Spain and the West Indies, 
Columbus was obliged to cross it on his first voyage of discovery ; and his 
sailors, upon entering it, were much alarmed lest they might run aground, 
or become so entangled in the weed that they could not escape. 

The Gulf Stream. — A portion of the drift of water which moves 
northward along the northern coast of South America enters the 
Caribbean Sea and then passes into the Gulf of Mexico. This is a 
broad, deep, gently-flowing current ; and it is so nearly surrounded 




Fig. 264. 

A diagram to show the currents of the North Atlantic. In order to illustrate the currents 
clearly it has seemed necessary to make them as if they were sharply bounded, like a 
river in its channel. As a matter of fact, however, the boundaries of these great currents 
and drifts are so indefinite that, in crossing them, one would not be able to detect the 
boundaries even by using the greatest care. 



b}'' the warm tropical lands that it grows even warmer than when 
it entered the Caribbean. After swirling round the Gulf of Mexico, 
it escapes between Cuba and Florida, after which it is known as the 
Gulf Stream (Fig. 264) because it comes from the Oulf of Mexico. 
Being forced to pass out through so narrow an opening, its rate of 
movement is much increased — even to four or five miles per hour — 
as water in a hose is made to increase its speed by passing through 



OCEAN MOVEMENTS 



235 




the nozzle. Measure the distance from Key West to Havana 
(Fig. 163). 

Being turned to the right by the effect of the earth's rotation, 
the Gulf Stream soon leaves the American coast and flows north- 
eastward toward northern Europe. It broadens rapidly and joins 
forces with the western part of the great Atlantic eddy. In crossing 
the Atlantic, , the drift is pushed along by the prevailing 

westerlies, so that it reaches the shores of 
=^^ northern Europe, and even enters 

the Arctic Ocean. Some idea of 
its volume may be gained from 
the fact that it carries many 
times as much water as all 
the rivers of the world. 
"; The Labrador Current. — 
■ After being cooled, 

* some of this water 
"" ? settles to the bot- 

tom and finds its 
, .„^_,*^-^_>^ way back to the torrid 
Fig. 265. zone in the slow drift 

of cold water which is 
forever moving along 
the ocean bottom from 
the frigid zone toward the equator. But much of it returns at the 
surface, for there is a cold surface current, called the Labrador cur- 
rent^ passing southward along our northeastern coast (Figs. 264, 265, 
and 267). 

The Labrador current flows down from among the islands of 
North America, past the coast of Labrador, Newfoundland, Nova 
Scotia, and New England as far as Cape Cod. Like all ocean cur- 
rents in the northern hemisphere, it is turned toward the right, that 
is, since it flows southward, toward the west. This causes it to 
follow our coast very closely, keeping nearer our shore than the 
Gulf Stream does. 



An Arctic whaling steamer imprisoned, off the coast of 
Baffin Land, in the floe ice which is being carried 
southward in the Labrador current. 



Since there are two currents near together, a cold one from the north, 
and a warm one from the south, a vessel sailing from Boston to England 
must cross both. During winter storms a ship often becomes covered 
with snow and ice while in the cold Labrador current, but loses this coat- 
ing soon after entering the Gulf Stream. 



236 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

Where the cold and warm currents come near together, a dense fog 
is produced. You can doubtless explain why that is so (see Primary Book, 
p. 77). Sailors who cross the Atlantic have learned to expect heavy fogs 
as they pass near the coast of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, which is 
one of the foggiest regions in the world. 

The Currents in the North Pacific Ocean. — In the Pacific Ocean, 
as in the Atlantic (Fig. 267), the water drifts westward in the belt 
of calms ; then a broad, warm current swings to the right past 
Japan, crossing the ocean toward Alaska, as the Gulf Stream crosses 
the Atlantic toward Europe. This is called the Japanese current. 
Continuing to turn to the right, this great ocean drift passes south- 
ward to complete the vast eddy. 

A small branch of the current turns northward along the Alaskan 
coast. There is also a cold current between the Japan Current and the 
coast of Asia, corresponding to the Labrador current in the Atlantic. 

We see from what has been said, that, although the Gulf Stream 
flows past the Southern States, the northeastern coasts of North 
America and of Asia are bathed by ocean currents from the cold north. 
On the other hand, the northwestern coasts of Europe and North 
America are approached by warm drifts of water from the south. 

Eddies of the Southern Oceans — In the South Pacific, South 
Atlantic, and Indian oceans, the same causes have produced eddies 
similar to that of the North Pacific ; but here the earth's rotation 
deflects the winds to the left, as we know, and the waters are moved 
m the same direction. Some of the water of these eddies joins 
the broad West Wind Drift of the distant southern ocean ; but 
much of it turns northward until it once more reaches the trade- 
wind belt, thus completing the eddies (Fig. 267). 

Effects of Ocean Currents in North America : Review. — The cold 
Labrador current greatly affects the temperature upon the land, for 
winds blowing over it carry the chill far inland. This is one of the 
reasons why the east winds of New England are so cool, and why 
the New England coast is such an agreeable summer resort. 

Since the Labrador current flows as far south as Cape Cod, the water 
north of this promontory must be cooler than that south of it. As the 
cold current leaves the Arctic region, it bears with it much sea ice which 
has been frozen during the preceding winters (Fig. 265), and also gigantic 
icebergs which have broken off from the Greenland glacier. It is upon 
this drifting ice that the polar bear spends much of his time hunting for 
seals, which live in great numbers in the ice-covered waters (Fig. 266). 



OCEAN MOVEMENTS 



237 



The icebergs may be carried southward one or two thousand miles 
before the air and water melt them away (see limit of icebergs on Fig. 
267). Indeed, some icebergs float even as far south as the paths followed 
by vessels which cross the Atlantic. Since many bergs are larger than 
the greatest building in the world, collision with one means shipwreck]; 
therefore sailors need to use great caution, especially when the ship is in 
the fog. 

The cyclonic winds from the Grulf Stream greatly temper the 
climate of eastern United States, while at the same time they bring 
to us much vapor gathered from over these warm waters. 

The warm currents of the Pacific Ocean render the southern part 
of Alaska far warmer than southern Labrador, which is farther 




Fig. 266. 
Polar bear and seal on the floe ice of the Labrador current. 



south; and the prevailing westerlies bring an abundance of vapor 
to the Pacific coast all the way from California to Alaska. Where 
these winds blow, the winters are mild and the rain heavy ; but the 
summers are cool and pleasant, because the ocean water, though 
warm, does not become greatly heated. Notice on a globe that the 
state of Washington, with its pleasant climate, is about the same 
distance from the equator as the bleak island of Newfoundland, 
whose shores are bathed by the cold Labrador current. 

Effects on Other Regions. — The Gulf Stream drift is of special 
benefit to the Old World. It has been estimated that its waters 
carry one-half as much heat into the Arctic as reaches it from the 



238 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

direct rays of the sun. When Nansen started on his famous journey 
toward the north pole, he entered the Arctic Ocean with this cur- 
rent. Thus, since its warm water keeps that part of the Arctic free 
from ice in summer, he was able to proceed much farther than he 
otherwise could have gone. Owing to this warmth, Russia is able 
to have a harbor on the very shores of the Arctic. Name it. 
Westerly winds, warmed in passing over this drift, have made 
possible the great civilized nations of northern Europe, the father- 
land of so many Americans. 

Notice on a map how many large cities are in that part of north- 
ern Europe which is the same distance from the equator as desolate 
Labrador. What a striking contrast these nations present to the 
scattered savages of the latter dreary country, whose winds come 
either from the land or from over cold ocean water. 

When our first settlers came from England they expected to find 
in the New World a climate like their own in the same latitude. 
They were unprepared for the severe winters which they actually 
found, and thus the first settlements on the New England and 
Canadian coasts were failures. 

Besides thus influencing so much of the earth, the Gulf Stream, like 
other warm currents, has helped to form a great number of islands. 
Where warm currents flow, the water is often warm enough for corals to 
live ; and, since the moving water brings to them an abundance of tiny 
animals for food, colonies of corals flourish, and their skeletons gradually 
form reefs. In this way the southern half of Florida, the Bahamas, the 
Bermudas, and many of the islands in the South Pacific, were built. 

The cold current on the northeast coast of Asia affects that 
region much as the Labrador current affects northeastern North 
America. Its winds chill the Siberian coast, and cause the harbors, 
like that of Vladivostok, to be icebound in winter. This explains 
why Russia has leased the Chinese harbor at Port Arthur, south of 
Korea, as a terminus of the great Siberian railway, — that her com- 
merce and warships might not be shut up in winter. 

Distribution of Temperature 

In general, it is true that the farther north we travel from the 
equator, the colder it grows ; but this is by no means always the 
case. If the earth were made of one solid, level substance, like 
glass, the temperature would gradually decrease from the equator to 
the poles. Then all points the same distance from the equator, as 




fe -r; 



-c a 




Fig. 270. 

Isothermal chart of the United States for January. Why is it colder in the interior than on 
the east coast ? Why so warm on the west coast ? Can you notice any influence of 
mountains ? 




Fig. 271. 

Isothermal chart of the United States for July. Notice the influence of the Rocky Moun- 
tains. Of the Appalachians. Why is it cooler on the west coast than on the east coast? 
What makes the isotherms bend northward in the Mississippi Valley ? 



BIBTBIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE ' 239 

all on the Tropic of Cancer, or all on the Arctic Circle, for instance, 
would have the same temperature. 

But we have seen that there are several causes which interfere 
with this regular decrease in temperature toward the poles. For 
example, (1) high mountains have a cold climate, even though in the 
torrid zone ; and, for the same reason, plateaus may be colder than 
lowlands far north of them. 

Besides, that, (2) land warms and cools much more rapidly than 
water (p. 229), so that land becomes hotter in summer and colder in 
winter than the ocean. Thus, in northern Minnesota, far from the 
coast, the average temperature in January is below zero, while in 
July it is about 65° (Figs. 270 and 271). In New York City, on the 
coast, the average in January is about 25°, and in July not quite 
75°. On the west coast, in the state of Washington, where the winds 
are blowing from the ocean, the average temperature for January 
is 40°, and for July 60°. 

At Key West, Florida, which is surrounded by water, the aver- 
age temperature in January is about 70°, and in July about 85°. 
Where the temperature changes so little, the climate is said to be 
equable. 

The winds (3) greatly influence the temperature. Where they blow 
from the ocean, they cause an equable climate, as in California, near 
San Francisco ; but where they blow from the land, they are cool or 
cold in winter and warm in summer. This is true of the Eastern 
States, where most of the winds blow from the land, though some 
of the damp winds come from the ocean. 

Another cause (4) for different temperatures at places equally 
distant from the equator is found in the ocean currents. We 
have just seen that the Gulf Stream drift warms the air, while the 
Labrador current cools it, and thus by winds from these waters the 
temjDerature is affected over a very wide area. 

If, therefore, we were to draw a line across the continent, connect- 
ing several points that have the same average temperature during 
any one month, or during the entire year, it would need to be a very 
crooked one, with some parts reaching much farther north than 
others. Such lines tell so much about temperature in so little space 
that it is the custom to make maps to show them, as in Figures 270 
and 271. Since the lines connect the places having the same tem- 
perature, they are called isothermal lines or isotherms. (The first 
part of the word means equal, and the latter part heat.') A map or 



240 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

chart showing the isotherms is called an isothermal chart (Figs. 270 
and 271). Trace several of the isotherms across the United States, 
and explain why they bend as they do. 

Note that on the western coast the isotherms extend northward 
and southward almost parallel to the coast, since the prevailing 
westerlies bring to the land the nearly uniform temperature of the 
Pacific. There is only about 20° difference betwe.en winter and sum- 
mer temperatures on the western coast of North America. But on 
the eastern coast of the United States the difference between summer 
and winter is much more marked, because, while some of the winds 
are from the ocean, still more are from the land, which is cold in 
winter and warm in summer. 

Figures 268 and 269 show similar isotherms for the world. Ob- 
serve how these bend toward the equator where they cross mountain 
chains. Comparing these two figures, you will notice how the 
winter isotherms of the north temperate zone bend toivard the 
equator over the continents, for reasons given in (2) above. During 
the summer, on the contrary, the isotherms curve poleward. On 
what continent are these bends most striking ? Why ? Explain the 
effect of the Gulf Stream drift as shown in Figure 269. 

The reason is evident why the isotherms of the North Atlantic 
are close together as they leave America, but spread apart like a 
fan toward the Old World. On the American side the currents 
approach each other, one from the north bearing Arctic cold, the 
other from the warm south. This causes great temperature con- 
trasts between our northern and southern coasts. On the European 
side one part of the ocean drift passes northward, raising the tem- 
perature and bending the isotherms far northward. The remainder 
turns southward and, being somewhat cooler than the region into 
which it enters, slightly lowers the temperature and bends the 
isotherms southward. Thus the isotherms are spread apart. 

Review Questions : Waves and Tides. — (1) Of what importance are the 
waves ? (2) How often does the tide rise and fall ? (3) What causes it ? 

Ocean Currents. — (4) Expla,in how winds help to produce ocean currents. 
(5) Describe the drift of tropical waters in the Atlantic. (6) Trace the drift which 
passes outside of the West Indies to the European coast. (7) Describe the Gulf 
Stream. (8) Describe the Labrador current. (9) Trace the currents in the North 
Pacific. (10) What coasts mentioned are bathed by warm currents? By cold 
currents? (11) Tell about the eddies in the southern oceans. (12) In what 
ways is the Labrador current of importance? (13) What influence has it in North 
America? (14) What is the influence of the Japanese current ? (15) Tell about 
the influence of the Gulf Stream on the Arctic Ocean. (16) On Europe. (17) On 



DISTBIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE 241 

the building of coral islands. (18) What is the effect of the cold current flowing 
along the northeast coast of Asia? 

Distribution of l^empei-ature. — (19) What about the change in temperature 
from equator to poles, if the earth were a round ball of glass ? (20) How is this 
change interfered with ? (21) What is an isothermal line ? (22) An isothermal 
chart ? (23) Relate some facts about the isothermal lines for the United States. 
(24) About those for the world. 

Suggestions. — (1) If your home is upon the seacoast, find oiit about the 
high and low tides for several days in succession. (2) Notice the relation between 
the height and the time of high tide, on the one hand, and the changes in the 
moon, on the other. (3) Does the government spend money near your home to 
remove materials which the tidal currents have brought ? (4) What course might 
a vessel take in order to be carried from Europe to America and back again by 
ocean cm-rents ? (5) What precautions do vessels take to avoid running into one 
another in dense fogs ? (6) How do they try to avoid collisions with icebergs ? 
(7) Learn more about Nansen's voyage. (8) Which of the isothermal lines on 
Figures 270 and 271 is nearest to your home ? (9) Which isotherm on Figure 270 
runs near New York and northern New Mexico ? Near Savannah and San Fran- 
cisco ? Through southern Maine and southern Nebraska? (10) On Figure 271, 
what isotherm runs through northern Maine and San Francisco? (11) How 
about the distance of these points from the equator ? (12) Does the presence of 
a warm or cold current near a country necessarily greatly affect the climate of 
that country? (13) Locate the cold ocean currents of the world; the warm 
currents. (14) Estimate the length of the circumference of the great eddy in the 
North Pacific. 

(15) How does Figure 269 show the effect of the cold current on the north- 
eastern coast of Russia? 

(16) Why are the isotherms so much more nearly parallel in the southern 
hemisphere than in the northern (Figs. 268 and 269) ? 

Only about one-fourth of the earth's surface rises above the water. What 
might be some of the effects if the quantity of land were greatly increased ? If it 
were greatly decreased ? 



IV. PEOPLES 




Fig. 272. 
An African nea:ro ffirl. 



Divisions of Mankind. — Man' 
like plants and animals, varies 
in different parts of the world. 
He is influenced by his sur- 
roundings, as they are, and in 
the course of time has developed 
differently in the various lands 
of the earth. Concerning the 
origin of the human race, and its 
divisions, people hold different 
views ; but mankind in general 
may be divided into four great 
groups. 

Ethiopians. — Altogether 
there are about one and one-half 
billion human beings upon the 

earth, or twenty times the number in the United States. Of these 

the lowest are the negroes (Figs, 272 and 458), or Ethiopians^ who 

number about one hundred and 

seventy-five million. This is often 

called the black race. There are 

many subdivisions of this group, but 

they are all characterized by a deep 

brown or black skin, short, black, 

woolly hair, broad, flat noses, and 

prominent cheek bones. 

The home of the Ethiopians is 

Africa, south of the Sahara desert 

(Fig. 275), though many have been 

transported to other lands as slaves, 

and have there mingled more or less 

with the other races. In their 

original home the negroes are sav- 
age , or barbarians of low type. 

242 




Fig. 273. 
A native of New South Wales, Australia. 




Fig. 276. 
A group of Indian Brahmins, who belong to the dark type of Caucasians. 




Fig. 277. 

Diagram to show the distribution of religions. So small a map is of course true only in 
general — for exami^le, it must omit many of the small sections where Christian mis- 
sionaries have made converts. 



PEOPLES 



243 



The native Australians (Fig. 273), the Papuans of New Guinea, the 
Negritos of the Philippines, and the blacks on some other islands in that 
part of the world resemble the negroes most closely, though differing from 
them in some important respects. They are shorter, for example ; their 
hair is less woolly, their noses straighter, and their lips less thick. 

American Indians. — A second great division of the human race 
is that of the American Indians, often called the red race (pp. 23- 
24). It is the smallest of the four groups, numbering about twenty- 
two million. These people, who in some respects resemble the 
Mongolians, were in posses- 
sion of both North and 
South America when 
Columbus discovered 
America. The}^ are dis- 
tinguished by a copper- 
colored skin, prominent 
cheek bones, black eyes, 
and long, coarse, black hair 
(Figs. 286 and 298). 

Mongolians. — The third 
division, the Mongolian or 
yellow race, numbering 
about five hundred and 
forty million, are typically 
Asiatic people, the greater 
number being found in 
Asia and the islands of the 
Pacific (Fig. 275). 

The Mongolians, typi- 
cally represented by the 
Chinese and Japanese 
(Figs. 274 and 401), have a yellowish, or in some cases even a 
white skin, prominent cheek bones, small oblique eyes, a small nose, 
and long, coarse black hair. In places, as on the more remote islands, 
the Mongolians are uncivilized ; but the great majority may be 
classed as civilized people, although their standard of civilization 
differs from that of the white race.* 

Caucasians. — By far the largest and most civilized of the four 
divisions of mankind is the white or Caucasian race, which numbers 
about seven hundred and seventy millions. Their original home is 




Fig. 274. 
Japanese ladies. 



244 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



not known. With the dawn of history the white peoples of Europe 
were mostly barbarians ; but civilization had begun to develop in south- 
ern and western Asia and along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. 
While for various reasons the Caucasians differ greatly in charac- 
teristics, two main branches are recognized : (1) the fair type (Fig. 
376), with florid complexion, light brown, flaxen, or red hair, blue or 
gray eyes, and height above the average ; (2) the dark type (Fig. 
275), with fair skin, dark brown and black hair, often wavy or curly, 
and black eyes. In temperament both are active, enterprising, and 
imaginative, though the fair type is more stolid, the 
dark type more emotional. 

Distribution of Races. — For centuries these four 
great divisions of the human race have been changing 
within themselves until there are now many subdi- 
visions of each group. By war and invasion they 
have encroached upon one another, and have inter- 
mixed to some extent. But the leaders are the 
whites, who, having learned the use of ships in ex- 
ploring distant lands, have spread with a rapidity 
never seen before. Also, being more advanced than 
the others, the white races have readily conquered 
the weaker people and taken their lands from them. 
They now dominate the world (Fig. 275), the only 
division that has held out against them being the 
Mongolians, whose very numbers have in large meas- 
ure served to protect them. 

Distribution of Religion. — Every race has some 
form of religion. Among savages it is little more 
than superstition. They are surrounded by nature, 
which they do not understand. They seek a 
cause, and, seeing none, are led to believe in spirits which they try 
to comprehend. Some they suppose to be evil, others good. Be- 
lieving that these spirits have great influence over their lives, they 
try to win favor with them by offering sacrifices and worshipping 
them. 




Fig. 278. 

A fetish from 
Africa. 



Such religion, if it may be so called, takes many forms. Some races, 
as the negroes, believe in witchcraft; and among them the witch doctor is 
sometimes more powerful than the ruler himself. To ward off evil influ- 
ences charms are worn, gross rites are observed, and images or objects, 
called fetishes (Fig. 337), are worshipped because they are believed to 



PEOPLES 



245 



possess magic power. Among these objects are included fire, the sun, the 
earthquake, and many animals. So far as the idea of God is concerned, 
if these people have any conception of Him, it is of the crudest kind. 
The negroes, the Indians, the Eskimos, and even our own ancestors a few 
thousand years ago had little more than this form of religion. 

All people with such views as the preceding are called heathens 
(Fig. 277), and are often said to have no religion. From our point 
of view they have no true 
religion ; but they have 
something akin to it. 

Among the semi-civil- 
ized and civilized races 
there are forms of belief 
in which the conception 
of God is higher, and the 
idea of future reward and 
punishment is taught. Of 
these religions five call for 
special mention. 

Buddhism^ followed 
especially in eastern Asia 
(Fig. 277), was established 
in India five or six hundred 
years before the time of 
Christ as a result of thg 
work and teachings of 
Buddha (Fig. 279).' But 
there are many differences 
in the religious beliefs and 
customs of the Asiatic people, and in consequence there are many sects. 
Brahminism is one of the most common forms of belief, being espe- 
cially followed in India. It would be difficult correctly to describe 
the religions of the Asiatic people in a few words ; but idolatry^ or 
the worship of idols, is prevalent among them. Ancestor worship is 
common in China ; and the doctrine of caste, in India, — that is, the 
doctrine of class distinction. Both of these doctrines, which are a 
part of their religion, are opposed to progress, as we shall see. 

The Jewish religion, still followed by many, upholds the worship 
of one righteous God, as taught in the Old Testament. From this, 
two other religions have developed, Mohammedanism and Christianity. 




Fig. 279. 
A statue, or idol, of Buddha in India. 



246 ■ GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 

The prophet Mohammed lived about six centuries after Christ, and 
the Koran contains his teachings. Mohammedans deny the divinity 
of Christ. This religion has been spread by the sword with won- 
derful rapidity, especially among the semi-civilized people of Asia 
and Africa (Fig. 277). Many of its followers became fanatics who, 
believing that they thus obtained future happiness, willingly died if 
they could die killing a Christian. 

The Christian religion, the common belief in America and most 
of Europe, has spread slowly, but it now numbers about 440,000,000 
followers. Its success, however, must not be measured by numbers 
alone ; for Christians make up most of the really civilized people of 
the world (Fig. 277). It is no accident that this is so, for Chris- 
tianity has been one of the chief factors in making civilization 
possible. 

Religious belief has had much to do with inventions and the 
growth of industry. The Chinese, for example, have long opposed 
new inventions because their ancestor worship cultivated undue 
reverence for past customs ; also they have been unwilling to dig 
into the ground, for fear of disturbing the evil spirits that are sup- 
posed to dwell there. Partly for such reasons, our study of geog- 
raphy is chiefly concerned with Christian countries ; for there we 
find the most varied and extensive uses of the earth in the service of 
man. 

Review Questions. — (1) Tell about the Ethiopians; their characteristics 
and distribution. (2) Do the same for the American Indians. (3) Mongolians. 
(4) Caucasians. (.5) Give reasons for the greater advance of the Caucasians. 
(6) Tell about the distribution of religion. (7) Give some facts about Heathens ; 
Bu-ddhism and Brahminism ; Jewish religion ; Mohammedanism; Christianity. 

Suggestions. ■ — ■ (1) What members of the divisions of mankind — other than 
whites — have you seen in your own neighborhood? (2) What different national- 
ities of whites ? (3) Find pictures illustrating human life in the various zones. 
(4) Help to make a collection of pictures for the school, to illustrate the various 
forms ofshelter and clothing. Also find such pictures in this book. (5) Find 
some one who has specimens of primitive implements, as Indian arrow-heads, 
and examine them. (6) Find out something about the ways in which savage 
races ornament their clothing and person. 




The M.N.CO .Buffalo LLAMA 



ARMADILLO 



Fig. 280. 
Some of the animals of South America. 





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Fig. 282. 



Relief map of South America. In wiiat portion are the highlands? Which are 
highest? Locate the lowlands. 



Part III 



SOUTH AMERICA 



oJOic 



Physiography. — North and South America resemble each other 
in several respects. The former is triangular in shape and has its 
main highland masses on the two sides. What are their names ? 







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II 



Fig. 283. 
A view in one of the higher valleys of the lofty Andes. 

The western mountains are the younger and loftier, and they have 
many volcanic cones. They occupy a great breadth of country, 
the westernmost, or Coast Ranges, rising from the very shores of the 
Pacific. Between the extensive highlands on the two sides of the 
continent are low plains stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to 
the Arctic Ocean. 

South America is likewise triangular in shape, broad at the north 

247 



248 SOUTH AMEBIC A 

and tapering toward the south, and its principal highlands are on 
the two sides (Fig. 282). Those on the west, the Andes (Fig. 283), 
form one of the loftiest mountain systems in the world, and between 
the ranges are included deep valleys and lofty plateaus.- Through- 
out the entire length of the continent these mountains, rising from 
the very seacoast, extend inland for a distance of many miles. Many 
of the highest peaks are volcanic cones, one of them, Aconcagua, in 
Chile, reaching an elevation of nearly twenty-three thousand feet. 

On the eastern side of South America the most extensive high- 
lands are those in eastern Brazil (Fig. 282). This region, like New 
England, consists of ancient rocks, rising in the form of high hills 
and low mountains. The highest point is a little over ten thousand 
feet. The Guiana highland (Fig. 282), between the Amazon and 
Orinoco rivers, resembles the upland of Brazil and may be consid- 
ered a part of it, although separated from it by the Amazon lowland. 
The remainder of the continent is lowland (Fig. 282) and mainly a 
vast plain extending from southern Argentina to the Caribbean Sea. 

In South America, as in North America, the growth of mountains has 
raised the two sides of the continent and left a depression into which the 
sea once entered. But waste from the mountains, washed down by rain 
and rivers, has filled this depression and built the broad plains that are 
now there. By uplift these plains have been elevated to form dry land. 

In two important respects North and South America are unlike 
in physiography. In the first place, their large rivers flow in differ- 
ent directions. Describe from memory the three or four principal 
river systems of North America. (Or see Fig. 42.) Make a sketch 
of the three largest rivers of South America. One of these is the 
largest in the world. Which is it ? Which one most nearly cor- 
responds to the Mississippi in position and direction of flow? 

A second difference between the two continents is in regard to 
their coast lines. It will be remembered that much of the North 
American coast has been made irregular by the sinking of the land. 
Much of the South American coast, on the other hand, has been 
rising. In the former case, many fine harbors were formed ; in the 
latter, the coast line is made straight because the level sea bottom is 
being raised. Notice how very regular is most of the western coast 
of South America. It is the most regular coast line of long extent 
in the world ; for a distance of three thousand miles there is a gen- 
eral absence of good natural harbors. What effect must this have 
upon the development of the continent ? 



CLIMATE 



249 



Climate. — A large portion of South America lies in the tropical 
zone and consequently has a hot climate. Where does the Tropic 
of Capricorn cross the continent ? The portion south of this tropic 
reaches into the south temperate zone, and its climate, therefore, 
resembles that of the United States. What countries of South 
America are partly or wholly in the temperate zone ? Dui'ing what 
months do they have summer ? What effect on temperature are 
their north winds likely to have ? 

The winds, together with the highlands, are the key to the rain- 
fall. On the map (Fig. 247) it is seen that the belt of calms extends 
across the continent in the neighborhood of the equator. North 




Fig. 284. 
A view on the arid plateau of Bolivia — a train of alpacas is crossing here. 

of this belt the northeast trade winds blow (Fig. 247), while south 
of it is the zone of southeast trade winds. Still farther south are 
the horse latitudes, and then come the prevailing westerlies (Fig. 
249), which blow across the southern end of the continent. 

We may therefore expect heavy rainfall in the vicinity of the 
equator (Fig. 251), where the air is constantlj^ rising. The 
northern coast must also receive abundant rains because the trade 
winds come from .the ocean and are forced to rise in passing over 
the slopes. The highlands in eastern Brazil must likewise be well 
watered by the vapor-laden southeast trades (Fig. 251). Of course, 
these winds lose much of their moisture in travelling across the 
continent, but on approaching the Andes they are forced to a still 
greater height ; accordingly, the eastern side of these ranges is wet 
by frequent rains. 

South of the belt of calms, both in the trade-wind and horse- 



250 SOUTH AMERICA 

latitude belts, the western slopes and tlie valleys of the Andes 
(Fig. 251) are far too arid for agriculture without irrigation. In 
this region large areas are veritable deserts. This arid condition 
is due to the influence of the mountains, which interfere with the 
trade winds so that the prevailing winds are from the south, and 
therefore parallel to the coast (Fig. 249). Since these winds are 
blowing toward the equator, and therefore becoming steadily warmer, 
they do not give up their moisture and form rain. Thus there are 
deserts on the very coast. 

Farther south the influence of the prevailing westerlies is felt. 
In this part of the continent, therefore, it is the western side that 
receives the rain, while the eastern part is dry (Fig. 250). In ris- 
ing over the land these winds cause abundant rainfall in southern 
Chile ; but, being robbed of their vapor as they cross the mountains, 
they descend as dry winds upon the plains of Patagonia. With 
what portion of the United States may the climate of this region be 
compared ? 

From the above we see that while most of South America is well 
supplied with rain, two extensive areas on opposite sides of the 
Andes are arid. Locate them (Fig. 250). 

The heavy rain in the tropical section of the continent supplies the 
three great rivers with an abundance of water, and encourages a rank 
growth of tropical vegetation. But each year, as the season changes, the 
belts of rainfall migrate northward and southward (Figs. 255 and 256). 
Therefore on each side of the equator is a belt where the rainfall varies 
with the season, being dry at one time of year and well watered in the 
opposite season. In the rainy season the rivers are flooded, and vegeta- 
tion grows profusely ; but with the dry season the streams shrink in size, 
and the plains become dry and parched. It is because of this dry period 
that there are open savannas both north and south of the equatorial forest. 
They are called llanos in the Orinoco valley, canipos in Brazil, and pampas 
in Argentina. Here trees cannot survive the drought ; but grass is able 
to mature its seeds during the rainy season, then die down to the ground 
and remain dormant until the next period of rains. 

Plant and Animal Life. — In the warm, rainy belt the great 
humidity and high temperature are favorable to an extraordinary 
growth of plant life. So dense are the vast jungles of the Amazon 
that travel through them is almost impossible (p. 255) ; in fact, 
much of this forest wilderness has never been explored. 

In the desert of the west coast, on the other hand, plant life is 
very scanty (Fig. 284). There are some parts, for instance the 



PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE 251 

desert of Atacama in northern Chile, where, as in other desert sec- 
tions of the world, there is almost no life of any kind. 

In those sections where the climate is cool and the rainfall moder- 
ate, as on the mountain slopes and in the south temperate zone, the 
land is forest-covered. The extreme southern part of the continent 
has a climate so cold that the plants become dwarfed, as is the case 
near the tree line in northern Canada. 

In the tropical forest there is a great variety of tree-dwelling animals, 
among which are many insects and beautiful birds. Among the larger 
animals may be mentioned the fruit-eating monkey, the fierce jaguar 
(Fig. 280), which preys upon other animals, and the sloth (Fig. 280), a 




Fig. 285. 

Tropical vegetation in the damp lowlands of Ecuador, where there are heavy equatorial 
rains. The boats are dugouts, that is, logs hollowed out in boat form by the natives. 

creature which sleeps suspended, back downward, from the branches 
of the trees. There are also many reptiles, including serpents and the 
iguana (Fig. 280), a tree lizard often several feet in length. Some of the 
serpents are small and poisonous ; others, like the boa constrictor 
(Fig. 280), are large and powerful enough to crush a deer in their coils. 
The boa, coiled among the trees awaiting its prey, resembles a vine. 

The beautiful butterflies and ants are most noticeable among the 
insects. Among the most interesting insects are the termites, commonly 
called white ants, which live in colonies, and build houses of earth. With 
so many insects there are naturally numerous species of insect eaters. 
One of the most interesting of these is the ant-eater (Fig. 280), whose 
long claws are adapted to digging the ants from their earthy or woody 
dwelling places, while its sharp-pointed snout and long tongue aid it in 
finding and devouring its food. 



252 



SOUTH AMERICA 



Besides these animals there is the tapir (Fig. 280), five or six feet 
in length, which wanders about at night, feeding along the watercourses ; 
and the armadillo (Fig. 280), a burrowing animal protected by an armor. 
When attacked by an enemy, the armadillo rolls itself into a ball, enclos- 
ing its soft under parts. In the river waters and swamps are fishes, 
turtles, and alligators (Fig. 280). The turtle eggs and fish are among the 
principal foods for the forest Indians. Here also is found the manatee 
(Fig. 280), or sea cow, a mammal that has become adapted to life in the 
water. It lives both in fresh and salt wate'r, and ascends the Amazon even 
as far as Ecuador. 

On the open plains, herds of deer roam about, and also the rhea 
(Fig. 280), — often called the American ostrich, — one of the few large run- 
ning birds. It lives on the open plains, as in Patagonia, where are also 
found herds of guanaco, a kind of wild llama. 

Among the crags and peaks of the Andes dwells the condor (Fig. 280), 
the largest of the flying birds — so large that it kills and carries off small 
deer. In the mountain valleys live the llama (Fig. 280) and its allies, the 
vicuna and alpaca, both wild and domesticated (Figs. 284 and 301). Like 
other mountain dwellers the llama is sure-footed on the rocks, and is thus 
of great use as a beast of burden ; and the cold climate causes it to have a 
thick coat of wool which is of value to man. Because of its usefulness the 
llama is sometimes called the American camel. 



The People. — When South America vv^as cliscoverecl by Columbus, 
it was inhabited solely by red men. Of these many were typical 

savages ; and even at the present day 
some of the forest Indians are sav- 
ages, living solely upon fish, game, 
and the abundant fruits. It is unsafe 
for white men to go among them, 
and indeed there are forest tribes 
which still practise cannibalism. 

Along the coast and some of the 
larger rivers the red men found by 
the early explorers were more ad- 
vanced. Like most of the North 
American Indians, they were in the 
lower stages of barbarism. In a 
crude way they cultivated the soil 
and manufactured a few simple im- 
plements. Many Indians in the 
more remote districts still live in this primitive way, though large 
numbers have mixed with the white settlers and adopted their customs. 




Fig. 286. 

A cannibal girl from the tropical forest 
of Peru. 



THE PEOPLE 



253 



But among the Andes, especially in Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador, 
the Spanish explorers found tribes of Indians, under control of the 
Incas, who had developed far beyond their neighbors. Indeed, like 
the Pueblo and Aztec Indians of North America (p. 23), they had 
reached the early stages of civilization. The temperate climate 
of their mountain valley homes favored advance. And the protec- 
tion from the inroads of their more savage neighbors, which the 
arid country and mountain barriers offered, gave them the oppor- 
tunity to develop arts and to advance in other ways. 

The Spanish, encouraged by the discovery of rich deposits of 
gold and silver, seized almost all of South America except Brazil, 




Fig. 287. 
A bridge made by the Incas. 

which was settled by the Portuguese. They treated the aborigines 
with great cruelty, especially the Incas, whom they robbed of their 
treasures and reduced to slavery. As in North America, the Span- 
iards intermarried freely with the Indians, so that the present inhab- 
itants of South America are to a large extent of mixed blood. The 
introduction of negro slaves has led to a still greater mixture of 
peoples. Therefore, while there are still pure-blooded Indians and 
negroes, and also pure-blooded white men, especially Spanish and 
Portuguese, the greater number of the South Americans are a mixture 
of two or more of these very different races. This fact is one of the 
main reasons for the unstable governments of some of the South 
American countries. 



254 



SOUTH AMEBIC A 



Spain maintained lier control in South America for fully three 
hundred years. But in the early part of the nineteenth century the 
colonies revolted and established themselves as independent republics, 
modelled after the Unit,ed States. They were led to fight for their 
independence partly because of the success of our own Revolution, 
but chiefly because of oppression by the Spaniards, who treated their 
colonies merely as sources of wealth. ■ 

Brazil also became independent of Portugal, and, after being for 
a long time ruled by an emperor, established a republican form of 
government in 1889. Of late there have been many immigrants 
from European countries, especially from Germany and southern 

Europe. Special induce- 
ments have been offered to 
such colonists, and the re- 
cent development in por- 
tions of South America, 
particularly of Argentina 
and southern Brazil, has 
been partly due to these 
immiafrants. 



Brazil 

Physiography and Cli- 
mate. — This is the largest 
country in South America. 
It is even larger than the 
United States without 
Alaska, and nearly as large 
as Europe. While reach- 
ing north of the equator 
on one side, it extends 
into the south temperate 
zone on the other side. 
How many degrees of lat- 
itude does it include ? 




Fig. 288. 



Since so large a part of Brazil is in the torrid zone and on the east-' 
ern slope of the continent, its climate is not only warm but moist. 
Why the latter ? 

Eastern Brazil is a highland of ancient mountains worn down 
to the condition of hills and low mountains. Numerous streams 



BRAZIL 



255 



drain this upland in various directions. Point out some of these 
(Fig. 281). Trace the divide between those flowing into the Ama- 
zon and Parana and those flowing into the Atlantic. What is the 
name of the largest river emptying directly into the Atlantic ? 

The northern third of Brazil is mainly a vast level plain, through- 
out most of its extent occupied by dense forest and drained by the 
Amazon. What is the condition on the campos ? Why? (p. 250). 
The rainfall in the Amazon valley is so heavy and the slope of the 
land so gentle, that the 
Amazon and its larger 
tributaries are swollen to 
great breadth. At times 
of flood the rivers over- 
flow the surrounding coun- 
try and transform it to an 
immense swamp through 
which man}^ branching 
channels extend. In places 
the Amazon is several miles 
in width, and resembles a 
great lake rather than a 
river. Boats are able to 
pass up the river nearly 
to the base of the Andes, 
a distance of twenty-two 
hundred miles from the 
seacoast. Some of the trib- 




navigable. 



Fig. 289. 

Some of the Indians of tropical South America, 
tice the nose and lip ornaments. 



No- 



utaries are also 

Along the route of navigation there are settlements, such as Ma- 
NAOS, which is reached by ocean steamers ; but at a distance from the 
river there is nothing but an almost unknown wilderness (Fig. 288). 

The Tropical Forest. — The Amazon forest offers a typical iUustration 
of the tropical forest where plants, encouraged by the uniformly high 
temperature and great dampness, grow luxuriantly in the rich soil. Not 
only is the rainfall heavy, but evaporation is retarded by the dense vege- 
tation, so that the forest is reeking with moisture. Consequently at night 
time, when the temperature falls, such heavy dews collect that the plants 
are wet by them as by a rain. 

One of the features of such a forest is the dense gloom and the silence, 
broken now and then by the crash of a falling tree, or the sorrowful notes 
of birds, or the frightful howling of monkeys, or perchance the shrill 



256 



SOUTH AMERICA 



scream of an animal which, has fallen a prey to the boa (Fig. 280). Why- 
might we expect the animals in large part to be tree dwellers ? 

To one whose home is in the temperate zone the tropical forest appears 
very strange, for the woods are much the same throughout the year. There 
is no time when all the trees send forth their leaves and blossoms ; nor is 
there a time when all the leaves change and fall to the ground. Some of 
the trees blossom throughout the year ;. others have their blossoms at 
regular seasons ; thus flowers and fruit may be seen at all times of the 
year. 

Products of the Forest. — Among the trees of the tropical forest are 
many useful kinds. Some produce gums, such as caoutchouc, from 
wliich rubber is made ; or edible fruits and nuts, or valuable timber 

and dye-woods. In fact. 



the name Brazil is derived 
from a word applied to a 
dye-wood found in the 
Amazon forests. 

Many of the inhabitants 
near the rivers, who have 
partially adopted the cus- 
toms of civilization, make 
" - ' long journeys into the for- 
est to collect the products, 
bdth for their own use and 
But the difficulties of travel, and 
the climate, are opposed to much 
work. Therefore the resources of this part of Brazil are only par- 
tially developed. 

The natives still cultivate the mancUoca, which was one of their princi- 
pal sources of food when white men appeared. This plant has beneath 
the soil an enlargement of the root which in shape resembles a long sweet 
potato. A dish of dry meal, or farina, made from the mandioca is com- 
monly seen on Brazilian tables, and it is often stewed with beans. Man- 
dioca bears much the same relation to these people that wheat bears to 
those who live in temperate climates. It is from this plant that tapioca is 
made. 

The Indians are also engaged in obtaining rubber, a product of immense 
importance because of its many uses, for example, as a packing around the 
valves of machinery, and as an insulator around wires and cables. Name 
other uses of rubber. 

Coffee Raising. — The coffee tree is a native of Abyssinia in 
Africa. It was introduced into Brazil in the eighteenth century, 




Fig. 290. 
An Indian hut on the Amazon. 



for shipment down the Amazon, 
the warmth and dampness of 



BRAZIL 257 

and lias proved so successful that Brazil now produces more than 
one-half of all the coffee raised in the world. Coffee is cultivated 
all the way from southern Brazil to the Amazon, and there are fully 
five hundred million coffee trees in Brazil alone (Fig. 200). 

Formerly most of the Brazilian coffee left the port of Rio de 
Janeiro, but now more than half of it is sent from Santos. Coffee is 
the principal export of Brazil, and much of it comes to the United States. 

Other Industries in Brazil. — On the highlands of Brazil, where 
coffee raising is carried on, other crops are also produced, such as cot- 
ton, sugar, tobacco, fruit, and corn. Much cocoa is cultivated in the 




Fig. 291. 
A part of the city and harbor of Rio de Janeiro. 

tropical section, and in the extreme south many cattle are raised. 
The rocks of the highlands have produced some valuable minerals, 
especially gold and diamonds. Indeed, at one time, the southern 
part of Brazil was the principal diamond-producing region in the 
world. Both coal and iron are also present, though they are not yet 
extensively mined. 

Cities. — The capital and largest city of the republic is Rio de 
Janeiro, a city about as large as Boston, and the second in size in 
South America. It is situated upon a fine harbor (Fig. 291) and is 
surrounded by excellent farming country and coffee plantations. 
Several other Brazilian cities are seaports connected with the interior 
by short railway lines which bring the coffee and other products for 



258 SOUTH AMEBIC A 

shipment. The most important are Bahia, Santos the seaport of 
Sao Paulo, and Pernambuco, the chief port for the export of sugar 
and cotton. Compare the size of each of these with some city in the 
United States (Tables in Appendix, p. vii). On the Para River, 
near the mouth of the Amazon, and connected with it by a branch of 
the river, is Paea, from which most- of the rubber, vanilla, and other 
products from the Amazon forest are shipped to America and Europe. 

Argentina 

Physiography and Climate. — This is by far the most advanced 
of South American countries, and the reasons are not difficult to 
understand. In the first place, Argentina extends from just within 




Fig. 292. 
On the pampas of Argentina. 

the torrid zone to the extreme southern end of South America. 
Thus the country is for the most part within the temperate zone, 
the climate of which favors the development of energetic people. 
Also the range of climate, from arid to rainy (Fig. 250)^ and from 
tropical to temperate, insures a considerable range of products. A 
second reason for rapid advancement is the fact that, while there 
are mountains in the west, the remainder of the country is largely 
one vast expanse of pampas (Fig. 292). These open, treeless plains 
have made it easy for settlers to move about and to carry on the 
industries of farming and ranching. This is quite in contrast to the 
unfavorable conditions in the Amazon valley; but it may be com- 
pared with the ease of settlement which the plains and prairies of 
the United States have afforded. 

Such favorable conditions have served to attract manv immi- 



ARGENTINA 259 

grants from Europe, and there is, therefore, a larger percentage of 
pure-blooded whites here than in other parts of South America. 
Largely for this reason the government of Argentina is decidedly 
better than that in most South American countries. 

Cattle Raising. — The open plains are well adapted to ranching, 
and it is estimated that there are nearly 100,000,000 sheep and 
25,000,000 cattle in this country. Stock raising in Argentina differs 
in some respects from ranching in the United States (pp. Ill and 143). 

Formerly the herds roamed over the plains, feeding on government 
land, as is the custom in the United States. The government of Argen- 
tina, however, recognizing that ranching would be more successful if the 
cattle owners controlled large bodies of land, has been in the habit of sell- 
ing large tracts to the ranchmen, who after purchase fence in their land. 
In western United States, on the other hand, ranchmen cannot obtain 
large tracts of government land because of the laws which restrict its sale 
to small blocks. But some of our western land, owned by the railways, 
can be bought in large tracts, and there the custom is growing to purchase 
and fence land, introduce better stock, and care for it, as in Argentina. 

Farming. — The climate and soil in many parts of Argentina are 
favorable to agriculture. In the warm northern portion sugar-cane, 
coffee, and tobacco are produced ; in the more temperate part, where 
the rainfall is sufficient, grains and alfalfa are raised.. There is also 
much fruit raising, especially grapes, from which wine and raisins 
are made. 

Wheat is the most important agricultural product, the value of 
the crop being fully $50,000,000 a year, making the Argentine plains 
one of the great wheat-producing sections of the world. The climate 
is favorable, the soil fertile, and the land level or gently rolling, as 
in Minnesota and the Dakotas. Agriculture in the extreme south 
is prohibited by the cold ; but sheep raising is carried on even in 
Patagonia and on the stormy islands beyond the Straits of Magellan. 

Manufacturing and Commerce. — Besides the industries men- 
tioned above, there is some lumbering and mining in the mountain- 
ous jDOi'fioi^' But although the words Argentina and Plata mean 
silver, their use as proper names comes from the fact that the na- 
tives wore silver ornaments, rather than from any abundance of the 
white metal in Argentina. 

In the large cities there is much manufacturing, largely con- 
nected with the raw products of the .country, as, for instance, 
dairying, woollen mills, flour, sugar, wine, and cotton manufactur- 



260 SOUTH AMEBIC A 

ing, the preparation of hides, etc. Nevertheless, a large part of the 
raw products is sent abroad, particularly wool, sheepskins, hides, 
wheat, corn, and meat. On the other hand, machinery, cloth, and 
other manufactured articles must be imported. 

With such a development of the resources it is natural that there 
should be means of ready transportation. The broad Parana 
River, which empties into the Plata estuary, offers extensive water 
connection with the interior ; and railways ramify the well-settled 
portions of the country, connecting all the important cities. In 
fact, because of the superior development of Argentina, there are 
more railways here than in any other South American country. In 
resources, industrial develo^Dment, government, and educational sj^s- 
tem Argentina, of all the South American countries, bears the closest 
resemblance to the United States. 

Cities. — By far the most important city is Buenos Aires, which 
is the largest city in South America, and considerably larger than 
St. Louis in the United States. There is a certain resemblance 
between Buenos Aires and New York, the metropolis of North 
America. 

Each is situated on a good harbor on an estuary, and each has water 
connection with a very productive interior having a temperate climate. 
Moreover, from various parts of the interior, in each case, railway lines 
converge toward the seaport, while steamship lines extend to all quarters 
of the globe. New York, however, is a gateway to a much larger and 
more varied country, and one of greater resources. In addition, New 
York has been developed for a longer time. Consequently it is much 
larger than Buenos Aires. 

Buenos Aires is a busy and rapidly growing city with much manufac- 
turing, especially flour milling, brewing, and the canning and preserving 
of meat. It also has an extensive commerce. Just below the city, on the 
Plata estuary, is the seaport of La Plata ; and up-stream, on the Parana, 
is the rapidly growing city of Rosario, which is an important railway 
centre as well as a river port. In the interior are a number of towns and 
cities, among which the railway centre Cordoba is the largest. 

Uruguay and Paraguay 

Uruguay. — Like so much of Argentina, this is a region of plains, 
well watered and excellently adapted to agriculture. Naturally, 
therefore, cattle and sheep raising are important industries. But 
although the climate and soil are favorable to the same crops that 
thrive in northern Argentina, there has been little progress in agri- 



URUGUAY AND PARAGUAY 261 

culture. Indeed, quite in contrast to its neighbor Argentina, this 
country is but slightly developed. The government is very bad 
indeed, for a few men control the army and make and unmake presi- 
dents almost at will. 

The principal products of Uruguay are those connected with 
cattle and sheep ; namely, dried beef, corned beef, ox tongues, hides, 
tallow, horns, sheepskins, and wool. The famous Liebig extract of 
beef is made in this country. The company disposes of more than 
one thousand cattle a day during the summer months, and exports 
tongues, canned meats, beef extracts, and other products, to the 
value of -115,000,000 a year. 

The capital and largest city is the seaport of Montevideo, situ- 
ated at one end of a semicircular bay on the Plata estuary. 




Fit.. Jit.i. 

Ranch houses on the plains of Uruguay. 

Paraguay. — Like Bolivia this little country is without a sea- 
coast, though it has access to the sea by way of the Parana River. 
It is a region of hills and plains covered with forests in part, but 
with many tracts of pasture land upon which large herds of cattle 
feed. The climate is hot and dry, with most of the hot winds from 
the north. Fortunately most of the rain falls during the hot sum- 
mer, when the ocean winds blow toward the heated land. 

The agricultural products are those of the warm temperate and 
tropical zones, including tobacco, rice, sugar-cane, and oranges, 
while from the forests rubber, dye-woods, and valuable timber are 
obtained. There is but one railway which connects the capital, 
Asuncion, with Montevideo on the sea. 

A peculiar product, and the principal export of this country, is yerha 
mat^, or Paraguay tea. Although not used as extensively as our tea, 
which comes mainly from China and Japan, it is very popular in South 
America, where its use was learned from the red men. 



262 



SOUTH AMERICA 



The Guianas and Venezuela 

The Guianas. —North of Brazil are three small countries, the 
only portions of the South American continent now under control 
of European nations. They belong to Great Britain, Holland, and 
France, respectively, and are known as British Gruiana, French 
0-uiana, and Dutch Guiana, or Surinam. Find the capital of each. 
Gold is obtained in each of the Guianas, although the development 
in this direction has gone little farther than the washing of gravels. 

In these small countries a large part of the surface is still a forest 
wilderness inhabited chiefly by Indians who have little contact with 
white men. This tropical forest, like that of the Amazon, which 
it closely resembles, supplies rubber and valuable timber ; but its 




Fig. 29i. 
A cocoanut grove on the northern coast of South America. 

resources are only slightly developed. Near the coast, however, 
there is a strip of cultivated land from which is obtained sugar-cane, 
bananas, cotton, and a few other products. Of late, especially in 
Dutch Guiana, attention has been turned to the production of cocoa 
and coffee. 

The Guianas are so slightly developed that there is but one 
short railway, and in most sections there are almost no roads. There 
are practically no exports except sugar, molasses, and rum — all 
made from sugar-cane. Flour, clothing, and other manufactured 
articles are imported. 

Venezuela.^ — This country includes one of the spurs of the 
Andes and also a portion of the Guiana highland. But a large 

1 This name, which means "little Venice," was applied to the country because 
when first visited in 1499, white men found an Indian village built on piles or posts in 
the water alona; the shores of Lake Maracaibo. 



TROPICAL ANDEAN COUNTRIES 263 

part of Venezuela is occupied by the broad plains of the Orinoco 
valley. Some of these plains, the treeless llanos (p. 250), are the 
seat of extensive cattle raising, as in the case of the pampas of 
Argentina. In parts of Venezuela are vast forests which produce 
valuable dye-woods and rubber. Among the mountains also are 
found rich mineral deposits, especially gold. 

There is some agriculture. Hardy crops, like potatoes, beans, 
and barley, are raised even at altitudes of eight thousand feet; but 
below five thousand feet are found such semi-tropical and tropical 
products as sugar-cane, bananas, cocoa, and coffee. The latter is 
the chief export ; in fact, Venezuela is one of the leading coffee- 
producing sections of South America. 

The capital, Caeacas, five or six miles from the sea, is situated 
upon a highland over three thousand feet above sea level. It is 
connected with its ports by a short railway line which winds about 
in its descent to the sea. 

In 1812 Caracas was visited by one of the most terrible earthquakes 
ever recorded. Being Ascension Day, a great part of the population was 
at church. The first shock caused the bell to toll, but after all danger 
was thought past, there came a terrible subterranean noise, resembling 
the rolling of thunder, but louder and longer. Then came a shaking of the 
earth so tremendous that churches and houses were overthrown and the 
inhabitants buried beneath their ruins. On that day fully twelve thousand 
persons perished. People were told that it was sent as a punishment for 
revolting from the rule of Spain. 

Tropical Andean Countries 

Points of Resemblance. — These countries, Columbia, Ecuador, 
Peru, and Bolivia, are all crossed by the lofty Andes and are there- 
fore mountainous. Each of them extends eastward beyond the 
mountains, to the plains of the upper Amazon and Orinoco valleys. 
In Columbia these plains include a portion of the llanos. Else- 
where the plains are covered with a dense tropical forest (Fig. 295), 
resembling that of the Amazon in density of plant growth and in 
human inhabitants. What can you tell about it then ? 

There is, of course, great variety of climate in this section. 
Tropical heat prevails throughout the lowlands (Fig. 285) ; but the 
heavy rainfall near the equator contrasts strikingly with the arid 
conditions of southern Peru and northern Chile, which lie in the 
belt of southeast trades (p. 249). 



264 



SOUTH AMERICA 



The elevation due to momitains and plateaus also causes differences 
in climate. This may be illustrated by the vegetation. Up to an alti- 
tude of three thousand to four thousand feet, bananas, sugar-cane, cocoa, 
and other plants of hot climates flourish. Above this, to an elevation 
of six or seven thousand feet, the cooler climate permits the growth of 
tobacco, corn, and coffee. From this height up to about ten thousand 
feet, wheat and our northern vegetables and fruits do well ; but above ten 
thousand feet the bleak mountain peaks are too cold for farming. There 
is therefore a great variety of farm products in western South America 

The fact, that this section is so mountainous furnishes an expla- 
nation of its importance in the production of minerals. Both gold 




Fig. 295. 
Building houses in a clearing in the forest of Peru on the eastern side of the Andes. 

and silver ores, and other minerals as well, are found from the 
northern to the southern limit of the Andes, and this is therefore 
one of the great mineral-producing regions of the world. It was 
the abundance of precious metals which attracted the Spanish to the 
continent. 

Goaded by the Spanish misgovernment, these colonies revolted 
in the early part of the last century and established independent 
republics. But the nature of the population was such that real 
republican government was impossible. In each of the countries 
ambitious leaders, usually generals in the army, have again and 



COLOMBIA 



265 



again overturned the government. This has seriously interfered 
with the development of industry and commerce ; for not only have 
lives and property been lost, but a feeling of uncertainty has been 
introduced which has prevented settlers from coming, and capitalists 
from investing money for the development of the resources. 

None of the capitals of the Andean countries are on the coast, and 
several are in the interior at a considerable elevation above sea level. In 
choosing such sites the Spaniards have had the example set them both by 
their Spanish ancestors and by the Incas ; for Cuzco, the capital of the 
Incas, and Madrid, the Spanish capital, are both at a considerable eleva- 
tion above sea level and many miles from the coast. The principal 
objects in the selection of these sites are to be near the mines, to secure 
a cooler and more healthful climate, and to obtain protection from attack* 
by sea. 

Doubtless another reason why these cities are not on the coast is the 
absence of good harbors. Throughout almost its entire extent, except in 
the cold southern portion of Chile, the coast is wonderfully straight. 
Why ? (p. 248). Even in the present century the coast has risen several 
feet in a part of Peru and Chile. This uplift occurred during earthquake 
shocks, and it was, without question, the slipping of the rocks that caused 
the shocks. 

Colombia. — This countr3\ named after Columbus, includes the 
Isthmus of Panama, and therefore has seacoast on both oceans. It 
is of especial importance 



to us, since the great Pan- 
ama ship canal is being 
constructed across the nar- 
rowest part of the Isth- 
mus. Of what advantage 
will such a canal be to 
the United States ? What 
two cities are located at 
the ends of this canal 
route ? A railway con- 
nects these two cities, and 
many goods are carried 
over it ; for vessels approach from one side and unload and transfer 
their cargoes to the other ocean, where other vessels await. Thus 
the long voyage around South America may be saved. 

It is in Colombia that several of the Andean ranges terminate, 
so that the western part of the country is very mountainous. Here 




Fig. 296. 
A native village in Colombia on the Panama Railway. 



266 



SOUTH AMERICA 



there is mucli mineral wealth, gold and silver being of most impor- 
tance,. though emeralds of excellent grade are also obtained. In the 
eastern portion of the country, on the other hand, are treeless llanos 
on which large numbers of cattle are raised, as in Venezuela. 
Coffee is the principal agricultural product and the chief export ; 
but sugar-cane, tobacco, and cocoa are also produced. On the 
mountain slopes the grains, fruits, and vegetables of temperate 
climates are grown. 

Bogota, the capital and largest city, is situated far in the 
interior and at an elevation of about a mile and a half above sea 
level. It has an agreeable climate, even though within the tropics. 

Ecuador. — Why should this name, the Spanish for equator, be 
applied to this country ? In the Andes of Ecuador there are 




Fig. 297. 

A native house iu Ecuador. Can you suggest reasons for building it on posts rather than 

on the ground ? 



many volcanoes, including Cotopaxi, the loftiest active volcano in 
the world, and Chimborazo, which is still higher but no longer 
active. 

Naturally, because of its position, this country has a hot, damp 
climate near sea level, but is much more temperate on the mountain 
slopes. The principal occupations are cattle raising and farming. 
The chief farm products are wheat and barley on the highlands, and 
coffee, sagar-cane, and cocoa on the warm lowlands. The last named 
is the most important product of Ecuador, and fully one-fifth of 
all the cocoa produced in the world comes from there. 



PERU 



267 



Another product of Ecuador, and of some other South American 
countries, is sarsaparilla. The rubber industry is also well developed; 
and, now that the accessible supply from wild trees is becoming exhausted, 
attention is being given to the planting of rubber trees. 

Even in the cities there is practically no manufacturing. One of the 
reasons for this is the almost total absence of roads, making the transpor- 
tation of heavy machinery very difficult. This fact also interferes greatly 
with mining operations among the mountains. Therefore, although there 
is much gold and silver, mining is as yet slightly developed. 

Quito, the capital of Ecuador, is situated among the mountains 
of the interior at an elevation of about nine thousand feet. But the 
largest city is the seaport Guayaquil, the west- 
ernmost of the large cities of South America. 
It is in W. Long. 80°. Does it lie to the east or 
west of Washington ? 

Peru. — The broad, forest-covered plains on 
the eastern side of the rugged Andes are drained 
by some of the larger headwaters of the Amazon, 
and thus Peru is provided with water commu- 
nication to the Atlantic. While much of this 
dense tropical forest is an almost unexplored wil- 
derness, the mountain valleys are settled mainly 
by the descendants of the Incas. 

In Peru there are not only variations in climate 
due to altitude, as in Ecuador and Colombia, but also 
great differences in rainfall. The heavy fall of rain 
on the eastern side of the Andes offers a striking 
contrast to the arid and even desert climate along 
their western slopes (Fig. 250). State the cause of 
this aridity once more (p. 250). So little rain falls 
in southwestern Peru that in some parts, even close 
by the sea, there is an average of but one shower in seven years. 

Peru was one of the most valuable sources of gold and silver for 
the Spanish conquerors. The Incas who dwelt there had accu- 
mulated gold for ornament, and this the Spaniards seized. Then^ 
opening mines, they forced the Indians to work as slaves. Since 
that time vast quantities of gold and silver have been obtained in 
that country, and valuable deposits of gold, petroleum, and copper 
have also been found. 

There is much agriculture in Peru, the principal crops being corn, 
wheat, and potatoes among the mountains, and sugar-cane, cotton^ 




Fig. 298. 
A Peruvian Indian. 



268 



SOUTH AMERICA 



tobacco, and coffee in the lower warmer sections. Even in the arid 
portion there is some farming ; for, as in southern California, the 
rains and snows of the mountains supply water for irrigation in the 
valleys and on the narrow coastal plains. Thus, even in the desert, 
there are some gardens, vineyards, and fields of cotton and sugar-cane. 

Cinchona, or Peruvkin bark, from which, the valuable medicine quinine 
is obtained, was known to the Incas and is still an important Peruvian 
product. It is obtained from an evergreen tree whose leaves resemble 
those of the laurel. 




Fig. 299. 
A view of Lima, the capital of Peru. 



Before the year 1879 Peru was making I'apid progress ; but by a 
war with Chile at that time the nation became almost paralyzed. 
Although there is some manufacturing, especially connected with 
sugar production, most, manufactured articles must be imported. 

Lima, the capital (Fig. 299), founded by the Spanish conquer- 
ors in 1535, is situated at the base of the Andes. Callao^ the sea- 
port of Lima, is about seven miles from the capital. Its harbor is 
but little more than an open roadstead partially protected by an 
island on the southwest side. However, since the winds and ocean 
swells are from the south, while the coast is practically never visited 
by storms, this slight protection is sufficient. 

Arequipa, at an elevation of seven thousand feet, is separated from 
the sea by sixty miles of desert. Cuzco, the old Inca capital, is on an 



BOLIVIA 



269 



interior table-land, at an elevation of over eleven thousand feet. The ruins 
of the Inca citadels and " palaces " are still to be seen, and many pure- 
blooded and half-breed Incas still dwell in and near the city. 

Bolivia. — This country, named after General Bolivar, the great 
South American leader in the revolt against Spain, wa,s robbed 
of its seacoast by Chile. What other South American country has 
no seacoast ? In a broad 
valley between the moun- 
tains is Lake Titicaca (Fig. 
300), partly in Peru and 
partly in Bolivia. This 
lake, the greatest in South 
America, is a third as large 
as Lake Erie ; and its 
elevation, twelve thousand 
five hundred feet above fig. 300. 

the sea, makes it the most An Indian boy in a rush boat on Lake Titicaca. The 

elevated great lake in the 
world. 

The Incas occupied this region also, and mined much gold. 
Besides gold the Spanish discovered veins of copper, tin, and silver, 
so that mining has been one of the most important industries of the 




fact that rushes are still used in making boats 
shows how these people cling to ancient customs. 




Fig. 301. 
A group of llamas in the Andes. 



country. It is said that over three billion dollars' worth of silver 
has been secured since the Spanish discovery. Bolivia is also one 
of the great tin-producing couutries of the world. 



270 SOUTH AMERICA 

The mining and reduction of tlie ore are done by very crude methods. 
For example, instead of using costly machines for crushing the ore, as in 
the United States, one method is to roll boulders around on the ore Since 
there are practically no railways, goods are transported for the most part 
by trains of pack-mules, donkeys, alpacas, or llamas (Figs. 284 and 301). 
The llama here, as in Peru, is of great value to the inhabitants, not merely 
as a beast of burden, but also as a source of wool for clothing. 

Much of eastern Bolivia, like eastern Peru and the Amazon val- 
ley, is an almost unknown forest wilderness. But in the mountain 
valleys and on the plateaus agriculture is carried on, with products 
similar to those of Peru. Most of these are consumed at home, 
though some coffee is exported. 

Better railways and the improvement of the rivers, so as to per- 
mit river transportation to the Atlantic, are among the greatest 
needs of the country. Through what rivers could boats pass to the 
sea ? Find the capital of Bolivia. La Paz, the largest city, has 
twice as many inhabitants as the capital. 

Chile 

Physiography and Climate. — Since the divide between the 
Atlantic and Pacific drainage forms the eastern boundary line of 
Chile, the country is very narrow in an east and west direction. It 
is also very mountainous (Fig. 302). Except in the south, the coast 
line is regular like that of the rest of South America. 

The climate varies more than that of any other South American 
country. The northern part is within the torrid zone, while the 
southern end reaches far into the bleak south temperate zone ; and 
on the mountain slopes there is every climate from frigid ^ to torrid. 
Moreover, northern Chile is arid and in places an absolute desert ; 
but central and southern Chile reach into the rainy belt of prevail- 
ing westerlies (Fig. 249). The best developed section lies in the 
middle part between the hot, arid north and the bleak, rainy south. 
This part of Chile is bathed by a cold current from the south, which 
cools the air as the Labrador current chills that of New England 
(Fig. 239). 

Mineral Wealth. — There is much mineral wealth, including lead, 

silver, coal, and copper. The latter is of such importance that 

Chile, like the United States, is one of the great copper-producing 

countries of the world. There are also beds of nitrate of soda 

1 The name Chile is derived from an Indian word signifying snow. 



CHILE 271 

which were captured during the war of 1879-80, and at present 
yield the government an annual income of fully 810,000,000. Nitrate 
is the principal export. 

The nitrate beds occur in the midst of the desert of Atacaraa, in which 
rain very seldom falls. The substance occurs in layers a few inches to 
one or two feet thick, over an area thirty or forty miles in breadth. In 
color it varies, according to the impurities contained. After being dug 




Fig. 302. 

Snow-covered mountains of Chile. 

out, the piire nitrate is dissolved and separated from the impurities, and 
then sold. Its chief use is that of a fertilizer, for which purpose great 
quantities are shipped from the port of Iquique. 

Agriculture, Manufacturing, and General Development. — -There is 
much agriculture in Chile, especially in the rainy middle portion. 
The principal crops are the various grains, tobacco, and vegetables, 
thus resembling agriculture in many parts of the United States. 
More wheat and barley are produced than are needed at home, so 
that Chile helps to supply other nations with grain. Large herds of 
cattle are also reared, and sheep raising is one of the chief industries 
in southern Chile. Hides, shoe leather, and wool are exported. 
More manufacturing is carried on than in most South American 
countries, the principal kinds being flour milling, cheese making, 
tanning, and shoe manufacturing; but as elsewhere on that conti- 
nent, machinery and many other manufactured articles are purchased 
in Europe and the United States. 

Chile is one of the most progressive countries in South America. 
Its government is stable, and its industries are well developed. This 
progress is doubtless in large part due to the temperate climate. 



272 SOUTH AMEBIC A 

which requires energy on the part of its inhabitants, and invites 
settlers from the temperate climate of Europe. It is interesting to 
note that the two most advanced nations of South America lie side 
by side in the temperate zone. 

Cities. — The principal cities are Santiago, the capital and 
largest city, situated inland, and Valparaiso, its seaport. As at 
Callao (p. 268), the harbor of Valparaiso is open to the north ; but 
the wind seldom blows from that quarter. 

Islands neak the Continent 

The Galapagos Islands, about six hundred miles west of Ecuador on 
the equator, are a group of small volcanic islands owned by Ecuador. 
They are too far from the continent to show on our map. 

Just east of the southern tip of South America are the Falkland 
Islands, which belong to Great Britain. Still farther east are the islands 
of SoutJi Georgia, also British. Just off the coast of Venezuela, opposite 
the mouth of the Orinoco, is the low island of Trinidad, also a British 
possession. This island is especially noted for its extensive pitch lake, 
from which asphaltum is obtained for use in making asphalt pavements. 
The asphaltum oozes slowly from the ground, and, as it is dug out, more 
oozes forth, as if there were an inexhaustible supply beneath the surface. 

West of Chile, and belonging to that country, is the island of Juan 
Fernandez. This is the island where Selkirk was wrecked, and by some is 
thought to be the island home of Eobinson Crusoe. It seems quite certain, 
however, that Defoe described Tobago, just north of Trinidad. 

Review Questions. — (1) State some resemblances between South America 
and North America. (2) Describe the highland regions. (3) The lowlands. 
(4) In what respects do North and South America differ? (5) Tell about the 
differences in temperature in different parts of South America. (6) Explain the 
regions of heavy rainfall. (7) Where are the arid belts ? Give the reasons. 
(8) What about the rainfall in the south? (9) Why does the rainfall vary with 
the season in the tropical belt ? (10) What differences in the plant life are found 
in South America? Why? (11) Tell about the animals of the tropical forest. 
(12) Of the plains and mountains. (13) Describe the Indian life in the forest. 
(14) What can you tell about the Incas ? (15) State the main facts in the history 
of South America since the whites came. (16) Describe the principal physio- 
graphic features of Brazil. (17) What are the variations in climate? (18) Tell 
about the influence of rainfall upon the vegetation and the rivers. (19) Describe 
the tropical forest of the Amazon. (20) What valuable products are found? 
(21) What can you tell about mandioca? (22) Tell about coffee raising. 
(23) What other products come from Brazil? (24) Name and locate the prin- 
cipal cities ; what can you say about each ? (25) Describe the physiograj^hj^ of 
Argentina. (26) What influence have the physiography and climate had upon 
development? (27) How does ranching in Argentina differ from that of the 
United States ? Why? (28) What are the principal farm products ? (29) Tell 
about manufacturing. (30) About commerce. (31) How does Argentina differ 



QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 273 

from many other South American countries? (32) Compare Buenos Aires with 
New York. (33) Locate the other cities named. (34) What are the industries 
of Uruguay? (35) Name the capital. (36) Compare Uruguay with Argentina. 
(37) What about the climate and products of Paraguay? (38) Name the three 
Guianas. (39) What are the conditions and products ? (40) Describe the physi- 
ography of Venezuela. (41) What are the principal industries? (42) "What can 
you tell about Caracas ? (43) Name the Andean countries. (44) Tell about the 
climate, its variations, and influence on the fai-m products. (45) What about 
the minerals? (46) What was the influence of the Spaniards? (47) Give rea- 
sons for the locations of the capitals. (48) Of what importance is the Isthmus of 
Panama? (49) Describe the physiography and industries of Colombia. (50) What 
about the capital ? (51) Tell about the effect of climate on the industries in Ecua- 
dor. (52) Name the products. (53) Why is there little mining and manufactur- 
ing? (54) Locate the principal cities. (55) Tell about the physiography and 
climate of Peru. (56) About the minerals and agricultural products. (57) Locate 
and tell about the principal cities. (58) What about the large lake in Bolivia? 
(59) Tell about the mining. (60) The other industries. (61) The transporta- 
tion of goods. (62) Describe the physiography of Chile. (63) The climate. 
(64) Name the mineral products. (65) AVhat other industries are developed? 
(66) Why is Chile so progressive ? (67) Locate the largest cities. (68) Locate 
the island groups mentioned. 

Review and Comparison with North America. — (1) Which of the two 
Americas has the advantage in regard to latitude ? Show how. (2) Tell about 
the effects of the trade winds in each continent (Fig 251). (3) Of the pre- 
vailing westerlies (Figs. 250 and 2.52). (4) Locate the arid sections in each 
continent, and give the reasons for the lack of rain (Figs. 249-252). (5) Point 
out the rainiest section in each, and state the causes. (6) Which of the two conti- 
nents has the better position for world commerce? Why? (7) Into what ocean 
do the principal rivers of South America flow? Of North America? (8) What 
can you say about the regulai'ity of the coast of the two grand divisions ? Which 
has the advantage in this respect ? How ? (9) Locate the j^rincipal coast cities of 
South America. Of North America. Give the main advantages of the location 
in each case. (10) What about the number of lakes in each continent and their 
value for commerce? (11) What interior cities in each continent can you locate? 
(12) Compare both Brazil and Argentina with the United States in area ; in popu- 
lation. (13) Compai'e Chile with Texas in these two respects. (14) What im- 
portant farm products are common to South America and the United States? 

(15) Name some products that are extensively raised in one and not in the other. 

(16) Which parts of each continent are especially noted for cotton? Coffee? 
Wheat? Cattle and sheep? Copper? Precious metals? (17) What is the pre- 
vailing kind of government in North and in South America? 

Suggestions. — (1) Give several reasons why South America has been much 
less rapidly settled than Noi'th America. (2) What parts of North America have 
been rising and on that account possess few good natural harbors? (3) How does 
the Spaniards' treatment of the Incas compare with their treatment of the North 
American Indians ? (4) Find out some of the ways in which coffee is often adulter- 
ated. (5) Make a sand model of South America; a drawing. (6) If you were expect- 
ing to emigrate there, where would you prefer to settle ? Why? (7) What products 
of South America are you probably seeing and using from week to week? 

For Eeferences, see Teacher's Book. 




S M 




Fig. 30i. 



VWVvw, 
<5celamS 



COALFIELDS 

OF 

EUUOPE. 

c 




Fig. 305. 
Coal map of Euroi^e. 




Fig. 306. 
The ice sheet of Europe. 



Part IV 
;^~~^^ EUROPE 

I. PHYSIOGRAPHY, CLIMATE, AND PEOPLE 

The continent of Europe was named when only the southern part 
of it was known ; that is, the portion that is separated from Africa 
and Asia by water. On Figure 304 find what these bodies of water 
are called. As exploration extended, it was found that Europe was 
really continuous with Asia, being in fact a great peninsula extend- 
ing westward. Europe and Asia together actually form a single con- 
tinent called Eurasia; but since Europe has been long considered a 
separate continent, and has figured so prominently as the home of 
the civilized races, it seems best to treat it separately. 

On the map (Fig. 315) trace the boundary between Europe and Asia. 
Make an outline map, inserting the boundaries and names of the European 
countries. Add the names of the seas and the larger islands. What countries 
are partly or wholly on peninsulas ? Add to the map the large rivers with 
their names. Where are the chief divides ? Mark with heavy lines the 
location of the principal mountains (Fig. 304). Write their names on the 
map. From what has previously been learned, what can you tell about 
the people of Europe ? About the climate ? What does the peculiar con- 
dition of the Caspian Sea tell about the climate in that section ? 

Physiography 

Highlands and Lowlands. — As in the case of North America, the 
development of the continent of Europe has required millions of 
years. Far back in time mountains appeared above the sea in the 
northwestern portion of the continent. Although greatly worn by 
the weathering of the ages, and much reduced in elevation, these 
mountains may still be seen in Finland, Scandinavia (the peninsula 
occupied by Norway and Sweden), and Scotland (Figs. 315 and 354), 

275 



276 



EUROPE 



as well as in Germany and Belgium. They resemble the mountains 
of New England and eastern Canada, that have likewise been greatly 
worn by weathering. 

Other mountain ranges were later formed in southern Europe ; 
but, like those of western America, they are young and their recent 
growth has been vigorous. Therefore the Pyrenees (Fig. 336), 
Alps (Fig. 378), and Caucasus (Fig. 307) are still of great height. 
Find each on Figure 304. The mountains of North and South 
America form continuous chains, with the highest ranges in the 
west, extending north and south. But in Europe the loftiest moun- 




FiG. 307. 
A view over the snow-capped peaks of the Caucasus Mountains. A sea of fog fills the valley. 

tains are in the south, extending in various directions, though mainly 
east and west. How does this condition promise a different effect 
on the climate ? It is to the fact that the mountains are not con- 
tinuous, and that they consist of chains extending in various direc- 
tions, that Europe owes much of its extremely irregular outline. 

Besides the mouutains mentioned, there is a long, low chain, known 
as the Urals, which extends north and south on the eastern side, and for a 
part of the distance forms the boundary between Europe and Asia. Other 
scattered highlands are shown on Figure 304. Where mainly are they 
situated ? 

Next to the Caucasus (Fig. 307) the loftiest of all these mountains are 
the Alps (Figs. 375, 377-379), whose rains and snows find their way to 
the sea through several of the large rivers of Europe. What are some of 
their names (Fig. 352). Headwaters of four of these rivers are within 



PHYSIOGEA PHY 



27T 




Fig. 308. 

Looking across the level plaiu of uorth Germany. 
Peat is dug on this plain near the river. 



forty miles of each other in the Alps. What large rivers of Europe do 
not rise in the Alps (Fig 304) ? 

Between the low mountains of the north and east and the higher 
ranges of the south there is a very extensive lowland (Fig. 304). 
A part of this has been 
submerged by the sinking 
of the land, thus forming 
the shallow Baltic Sea. 
Beginning in the west 
with southern England, 
and passing through Bel- 
gium and Holland, or the 
" Low Countries," this 
plain broadens as it ex- 
tends eastward across Ger- 
many (Fig. 308) until it includes almost all of Russia (Fig. 304). 
Estimate its length east and west. About two-thirds of Europe is 
included in this plain. 

Coal Beds. — While these mountains and plains were forming, 
coal beds were also accumulating, as was the case in America 
(p. 2) during the Coal Period. 

Figure 305 shows the parts of Europe in which coal beds occur. 
In what countries are they ? Most of the coal is bituminous or soft 

coal, though there is some 
mithracite. In a number of 
sections lignite, or brown 
coal, is mined ; and peat 
(Fig. 308) is also dug for 
fuel in western Europe, 
where the damp climate 
favors its formation. 

The Great Ice Sheet. — 
At the same period that 
eastern North America was 
invaded by a great ice sheet 
from the north, snow accu- 
mulated on the highlands of 
northwestern Europe and 
Figure 306 shows the extent of 




A fjord on the coast of Norway — a mountain valley 
into which the sea has heen admitted by sinking 
of the land. (See also Fig. 354.) 



spread outward in' all directions, 
the European ice sheet. 



278 EUROPE 

The Coast Line. — The irregularities of the coast line of northern 
Europe, like those of northeastern North America, are due to the 
sinking of the land. The Baltic Sea and its gulfs represent old land 
valleys ; and the hills of this submerged land form either islands, 
peninsulas, or shallow banks where food fish abound. 

It is well proved that, before the Glacial Period, the British Isles were 
connected with the mainland by low plains where the North Sea and 
English Channel now exist. An elevation of only a few hundred feet 
would restore this condition by changing the bed of the North Sea to dry 
land. This would then extend the continent westward beyond the British 
Isles, thus destroying the bays and harbors, and altering the entire out- 
line of northwestern Europe. 

In southern Europe the rising and sinking of small areas of land 
— while the mountains were forming — has made many peninsulas, 
with bays, gulfs, islands, and seas between. The Mediterranean 
itself occupies a basin, thousands of feet in depth, formed by the 
sinking of this part of the earth's crust. Some of these islands, 
however, are partly or wholly built up by volcanic action. What 
volcano is on the island of Sicily (Fig. 374) ? 

Climate 

Influence of Latitude. — Trace the 50th parallel of latitude on a 
globe or map of the world. Notice that while the 49th parallel 
forms the northern boundary of western United States, it passes 
entirely south of England, crosses France near Paris, and extends 
through southern Germany and Russia. From this it is evident that 
by far the larger part of Europe lies farther north than the United 
States, and due east of Canada. St. Petersburg is in the same 
latitude as northern Labrador; and the tips of the peninsulas of 
southern Europe reach about as far south as the southern boundary 
of Virginia. 

In the far north, near the Arctic, the climate is bleak, and there 
are barren, frozen tundras. South of this is a belt of fir, spruce, 
and pine, like that which stretches east and west across central 
Canada. But contrary to what might be expected from latitude 
alone, the climate in and just south of this belt of evergreen forest 
permits the growth of the grains and fruits that flourish in southern 
Canada and northern United States. In southern Europe, in the 
latitude of central United States, such semi-tropical fruits as oranges. 



CLIMATE 279 

lemons, olives, and figs are cultivated. That is to say, the products 
of the greater part of Europe are such as grow several hundred 
miles farther south in eastern North America. 

That these products are raised in great abundance in Europe is 
indicated by the number of people there ; for, although the conti- 
nent is much less than half the size of North America, it supports 
four times as many inhabitants, or nearly 400,000,000. Let us see 
the explanation of these remarkable facts. 

Resemblance to Western North America. — In several respects the 
climate of Europe is so similar to that of western North America that a 
brief review will be useful. Recall the facts stated on pages 223, 240. 

The prevailing westerlies are felt in northern Europe as in the 
United States. Blowing from the ocean, and, what is especially 
important, from across the warm ocean current (p. 237), they dis- 
tribute an enormous amount of heat over the land. It is the wester- 
lies from these warm waters, more than any other factor, that allow 
crops to be raised nearer the pole in Europe than in any other part 
of the globe. If these conditions were not present, much of that 
densely populated continent (Fig. 303) would be barren waste, like 
Labrador. 

The effect of the ocean winds is naturally greatest near the coast, 
as in western North America. Therefore England has a mild, rainy 
climate ; but the farther eastward one goes, the less is the influence 
of the ocean. Thus eastern Russia experiences great extremes of 
heat and cold, and there is danger of serious droughts. Compare 
the summer and winter temperature (Figs. 268 and 269) and the 
rainfall (Fig. 310) of these two sections. 

Southern Europe, lil^e southern California, is not affected by the 
westerlies in summer, for it then lies within the belt of the horse 
latitudes. This accounts for the fact that southern Spain, Italy, and 
Greece receive very little rain in summer. Examine Figure 310 to 
see where in Europe the rainfall is light. Find some places where 
there is abundant rain on mountain slopes. 

Influence of Cyclonic Storms. — Thus far we have seen a striking 
resemblance in the climates of the two continents. But there are 
also notable differences. The westerlies are less regular in Europe 
than in western North America because of frequent interruption by 
the cyclonic storms, which, after passing over eastern North America, 
often cross the ocean and continue across Europe (p. 228). Why 
cannot their arrival be predicted as well as in the United States ? 



280 



JEUROPE 



As in eastern United States and Canada, the cyclonic storms cause 
variable winds (Fig. 161). For example, when a storm centre is west of 
the British Isles the westerlies are checked and the winds blow toward 
the centre, or from the east. But while storm winds from the east bring 
rain to eastern North America, the same kind of winds cannot bring rain 
to eastern Europe, because there is no great ocean near at hand to supply 
the vapor. On account of the absence ■ of ocean water, therefore, eastern 
Europe has little rain, as eastern America would have if there were land 
instead of water to the east of it. 




Fig. 310. 

Effect of Mountain Ranges. — The direction in which the high- 
lands extend is another cause of great difference between the climates 
of Europe and America. In America, where high mountains extend 
north and south along the entire western margin of the continent, 
the warm, damp westerlies are soon deprived of their moisture. 
This leaves a vast arid and semi-arid area in the interior. 

In Europe, on the other hand, where the higher ranges extend 
nearly east and Avest, the mountains do not so seriously interfere with 
the movement of vapor to the interior. Consequently the west winds 
surrender their moisture only very gradually. This accounts for the 
fact that in the belt of westerlies, from western Ireland to eastern 
Russia, there is rainfall enough for agriculture. 



PEOPLE 281 

The east-west direction of the lofty mountains has a marked influence 
on the climate of those portions of Europe that lie on their north and south 
sides. Eising like great walls, the mountains prevent south winds from 
bearing northward the heat of the Mediterranean basin; and they also 
interfere with the passage of the chilling winds from the north. We know 
that Florida, much farther south than southern Europe, is visited by cold 
waves and accompanying frosts ; but mountain barriers prevent such winds 
in portions of southern Europe. 

Inland Seas. — The numerous inland seas are another great factor in 
influencing the climate of parts of Europe. Draw a sketch map of Europe, 
locating these seas. How does the Mediterranean compare in length with 
Lake Superior ? It will be remembered that our Great Lakes produce a 
marked influence on the climate of the neighboring land, moderating the 
heat of summer and the cold of winter. It is this influence, added to that 
of the mountain barrier, that gives to southern Italy, Greece, France, and 
Spain such an equable and semi-tropical climate. How must these seas 
influence the rainfall ? 

People 

The people of Europe have never been bound closely together 
as one great nation with common interests. One of the important 
reasons for this is the fact that so many parts of the continent are 
quite detached from all others. Spain, for example, is not only a 
peninsula, but it is separated from France by a high range of moun- 
tains. The British Isles are entirely cut off by water ; Scandinavia 
nearly so ; and Italy itself is bounded on the north by lofty moun- 
tains, and by water on all other sides. It is natural that people 
living in such isolated jDositions should not feel a common interest 
with those who are so separated from them. Thus have arisen 
many different customs, beliefs, and languages. 

In consequence of such differences and lack of common inter- 
ests there are many more nations in Europe than in North America. 
Count them (Fig. 352). There have been many jealousies and 
clis]3utes between them which have been settled by war, and their 
boundaries have been subjected to numerous changes, as one nation 
or another has seized territory during war. Notice also how 
irregular are some of the boundary lines. Those of Germany, for 
example, have been determined onl}^ after the loss of tens of thous- 
ands of human lives. 

Influence of the Discovery of America. — Of the many great 
achievements of Europeans within modern times, probably the 
greatest was the discovery of America. In thinking of this event 



282 EUROPE 

we are apt to consider only the mighty influence Europe has had 
on America. But the New World has also exerted a powerful 
influence upon Europe. The encouragement given to navigation 
by this discovery led Europeans to explore other parts of the 
world. Their knowledge was thereby greatly increased and their 
wealth as well. Also, the crowded condition of Europe has been 
much relieved ; for many nations have poured forth emigrants, not 
only to North and South America, but also to Australia and Africa, 
and, more recently, even to Asia. 

Review Questions. (1) Give reasons for and against treating Europe as 
a separate continent. (2) Tell about the highlands. (3) The lowlands. (4) The 
coal beds. (5) The Ice Age. (6) Locate the boundary of the ice sheet (Fig. 306) 
on Figure 415. (7) Tell about the coast line in northern Europe. (8) In southern 
Europe. (9) Of what advantage is the irregularity of the European coast? 
(10) Give the latitiide of northern and of southern Europe. (11) How about 
its vegetation? (12) Its popiilation? (13) Remembering its latitude, explain 
the mild climate of Europe. (14) How are its regular westerlies interfered with ? 
(15) How is the east and west direction of its mountain ranges of gi-eat impor- 
tance? (16) What is the influence of its inland seas? (17) Give some reasons 
why Europe is divided into so many nations. (18) How has the discovery of the 
New World ^^roved of great benefit to Europe? (19) In what resjDect is Europe 
the Fatherland of other coiintries ? 

CoRKELATiON WITH JSToRTH AMERICA. (1) Compare Europe with North 
America in regard to highlands. (2) To lowlands. (3) Distribution of coal 
beds.i (4) Extent of ice covering. (5) Irregularity of coast lines. (6) Latitude. 
(7) Vegetation (see also pp. 20-21. (8) Population. (9) In what respects are 
the two continents alike in climate? (10) In what respects unlike? (11) Com- 
pare the number of degrees of longitude in Europe with the number in North 
America. (12) Are the cyclonic storms as much needed in Europe as in America ? 
Why? (13) Why should the most densely populated part of Europe be on the 
western side, while the most densely populated part of North America is on the 
eastern side ? 

Suggestions. (1) What results might follow if the mountains of Europe 
extended north and south near the western coast? (2) What disadvantages do 
some of the European countries sulfer in consequence of the east and west direc- 
tion of the mountains on their southern boundaries? (3) Mention some of the 
results if the land should rise near Gibraltar, changing the Mediterranean to a 
closed sea. How would the British Isles be influenced? Also Italy? (4) In 
what section would you expect to find most wild animals? (Fig. 303.) (5) Give 
reasons why some Euroj>ean countries, such as Germany, take much better care 
of their forests than Americans do. (6) Can you tell about any of the great wars 
and great generals of Germany, England, or France? (7) Can you tell of any 
of the changes in boundary lines ; for example, in Poland, or between France and 
Germany ? 

1 Some of these comparisons will be made easier by examining the figures on 
pages 224-235. 




Fig. 313. 

Map Questioks. (1) Walk toward the British Isles. (2) What two large islands 
do they include? (3) What waters separate these two? (4) Name the three divi- 
sions of Great Britain. (5) Find the Orkney, Hebrides, Shetland, and Channel 
Islands. They are included among the British Isles. (6) What sea lies east of Great 
Britain? (7) What country is nearest to Great Britain? (Fig. 3.52.) (8) What 
waters separate the two ? (9) Make a sketch map of the British Isles. (10) Com- 
pare the coast line with that of Spain (Fig. 337). With that of Norway (Fig. 352). 
What suggestion do you get from this comi^arison? 



II. THE BRITISH ISLES 



Position, Size, and Importance. — London is fully seven hundred 
miles farther north than New York City, and the British Isles are 
in the same latitude as Labrador. England itself is smaller than 
New England ; and the British Isles, including England, Wales, 
Scotland, Ireland, and several hundred small islands, are not much 
larger than the state of Colorado. 

Yet in spite of their northern position and small area, the largest 
city in the world is located in the British Isles. More than that, 
Great Britain has more manufacturing, with the exception of the 
United States, more foreign trade, a greater number of vessels upon 
the sea, and more colonies (Fig. 312) than any other nation in exis- 
tence (Fig. 353). There are of course reasons for these remarkable 
facts, and we shall next look for them. 

Inhabitants. — The British people doubtless offer one important 
explanation of the above facts. Being so near the mainland the 
islands have been invaded 
by many hardy people, 
among them the Angles 
and Saxons, from whom 
the words English and 
Anglo-Saxon have been 
derived. The Normans 
also entered Britain, and 
still earlier the Romans 
under Julius Caesar. 

Although formerly di- 
vided into different na- 
tions, England, Scotland, 
and Ireland are now united to form the United Kingdom of Great 
Britain and Ireland. The inhabitants of each of these sections are 
noted for their energy, intelligence, and high ideals which in no 
small measure account for their success as a nation. 

Physiography and Climate. — The southwesterly winds from over 
the warm ocean (p. 279) also partly account for the greatness of the 

283 




Fig. 311. 
Ancient cottage near the Lakes of Killarney in Ireland. 



284 



EUROPE 



British Empire. Two days out of three these winds blow across 
the British Isles ; and, since they have traversed a vast expanse of 

warm water, they greatly 




temper the climate. In- 
deed, the winter season 
is milder than that in 
northern United States, 
and the summer is cooler 
(Figs. 268 and 269). 

The prevailing west- 
erlies, carrying an 
abundance of moisture 
(p. 279) so distribute 
it over the islands that 
no section suffers from 
drought. Yet the wes- 
tern portions receive 
more rain than the eas- 
tern because the ocean 
winds visit them first 
(Fig. 314). 

The highlands also 
influence the rainfall. 
A highland rim extends 
around Ireland (Fig. 
313), giving to the sur- 
face of that island the form of a shallow plate. How does that influ- 
ence the rainfall? (Fig. 314). Highlands are also found in Wales, 
western England, and most of Scotland (Fig. 313). 

As already stated (p. 338), the mountains of Great Britain, like 
those of New England, are so old that they are worn very low. 
While this upland is rarely more than one or two thousand feet 
above sea-level, there are occasional peaks of hard rock that rise to 
a greater height. For example, the granite peak of Ben Nevis in 
Scotland, the highest point in the British Isles, is forty-three hun- 
dred feet in elevation. The Scottish Highlands (Fig. 315) are so 
rugged and barren that few people are able to live there. 

Where the rocks are softer and less disturbed by folding there are 
lower and more level tracts, or plains. Point out the broadest plains 
of Ireland, Scotland, and England (Fig. 313). Notice especially the 



Fig. 314. 
Rainfall map of the British Isles. 



THE BRITISH ISLES 



285 



narrow lowland of southern Scotland, near Edinburgh and Glasgow. 
There the rocks are so much softer than those of the Highlands that 
instead of a barren, hilly country, there is a fertile lowland, upon 
which, as in many parts of England, there are thriving industries. 

What have you already learned (p. 278) about the Great loe Age in the 
British Isles ? As in northeastern North America, the glaciers had an im- 
portant effect upon the soil and caused many lakes (Fig. 320). Explain how. 

The coast line is very irregular, as may be seen from the map 
(Fig. 313). How does the coast compare with that of New Eng- 
land ? You have already learned that this irregularity is due to 




Fig. 315. 
Pasture land in the Highlands of Scotland. 

sinking of the land ; and that the many islands are the crests of 
former hills, while the bays and harbors are submerged vallej^s. 
Since the mountainous western portion had more deep valleys for the 
sea to enter than the level plains of the east, there are more good 
harbors on the west coast than on the eastern side of the islands. 
On both sides, however, the mouths of the larger rivers usually make 
good ports. Why ? 

Agriculture. — In connection with agriculture, much live stock is 
raised. In fact, grazing has of late so increased in importance that there 
is now twice as much land in pasture as in crops, and the British Isles 
are noted for their great number of fine cattle, sheep, and horses. 
The importance of grazing is partly explained by the fact that much 
of the surface, like that of New England, is too rocky or mountainous 



286 EUROPE 

to be cultivated (Fig. 315). Besides this some of the plains in east- 
ern England, although too sterile for farming, make excellent pasture 
land. Two other facts favorable to stock raising are the mild winters 
and the damp atmosphere which encourages the growth of grass. In 
addition to these causes, the cheapness with which grain is raised in 
other countries, like the United States, and transported to the British 
Isles on the large steamships, has made it less necessary for the 
British to raise grain. 

Several of the smaller islands are also widely known for live 
stock. For instance, the Shetlands are famous for Shetland ponies ; 
and on the three Channel Islands, — Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney, 




Fig. olO. 
A cottage in southwestern England. 

— near the French coast, three breeds of cattle have been developed 
which are well known in the United States. 

The cool summer climate, which is of advantage in some respects, 
is unfavorable to many kinds of farming ; for example, it prevents 
the production of corn, cotton, tobacco, and grapes, which require 
warm summers. More hardy products, however, as oats, barley, and 
wheat, are extensively cultivated. Turnips, potatoes, beans, and 
peas are other important crops ; also hops, which, together with 
barley, are used in the manufacture of beer. Owing to the many 
towns and cities, truck farming is of importance. 

The demand for farm land has been so great that large areas of swamp 
have been reclaimed by careful drainage, and these now make the most 
fertile farms. But in spite of the care that has been given to cultivating 



THE BRITISH ISLES 



287 



the soil and to raising live stock, far less food is produced than is needed 
by the inhabitants. Such vast multitudes are engaged in other occupa- 
tions that if they were deprived of food from abroad, they would, it is 
said, begin to suffer from famine within a month. How different that is 
from our own country, whose area is so large, and climate so varied, that 
it not only supplies the food we need, but produces enormous quantities 
to be sent abroad. 

Fishing. — Since the early inhabitants had to cross the sea in order to 
reach these islands, and since most of their descendants have lived either 
on or near the coast, it is natural that, as a people, they should become 
accustomed to a seafaring 
life. This sort of life has 
also been encouraged by the 
fact that food fish abound 
on the shallow banks of the 
North Sea and of the ocean 
to the north and west of 
the islands. More than one 
hundred thousand men and 
twenty-five thousand boats 
from the British Isles are 
employed in the fishing in- 
dustry. Among the fish 
caught are cod, haddock, and 
herring, as off the coast of 
New England and Newfound- 
land. Another important 
kind is a flat-fish, the sole, 
which resembles the flounder 
of the New England coast. 
Salmon enter the rivers of 
northern Great Britain, and 
oysters are foundalong the 
southern coast. 

Many fishing hamlets are 
scattered along the shore; 
but the fishing industry here, 
as in New England, is becom- 
ing more and more centralized 

in the large towns, which possess the capital for large vessels and expen- 
sive fishing outfits. The chief centres of the trade, like Boston and 
Gloucester in Massachusetts, are London, Hull, and Grimsby (Fig. 322, 
near Hull) in England, and Aberdeen in Scotland. 

Mining. — One of the resources of the British Isles which early 
attracted people from southern Europe was the tin in southwestern 




Fig. 317. 

A map showing the coal fields of the British Isles. 
Why are so many of the large cities on or near the 
coal fields ? 



288 EUROPE 

England. This metal is not mined in many parts of the world, 
but has always been in great demand; and even before the time of 
Caesar, ships from the Mediterranean came to England to obtain tin 
for use in the manufacture of bronze. Small quantities of copper, 
lead, zinc, and even gold and silver ores have also been discovered in 
the British Isles, but at present there is almost no mining of these 
metals. 

On the other hand, the abundance of two other minerals, coal and 
iron ore, reminds us of our own country. This one small island 
of Great Britain produces almost as much coal as all of our states 
together ; and the United States and Great Britain are the lead- 
ing coal-producing countries of the world. Figure 317 shows the 
sections of Great Britain in which coal is found. While most of the 
coal is bituminous, that in South Wales is mainly anthracite. Large 
numbers of miners in the United States are Welshmen who have 
come from that section. 

Parts of Great Britain possess the same advantage as Birming- 
ham, Alabama, the name of which is derived from the close resem- 
blance of conditions about it to those about Birmingham, England, 
None of the British iron ore is far from coal ; and in places the same 
shaft is used to bring both coal and iron to the surface. Limestone 
is also abundant and near at hand. What suggestions do these facts 
give concerning the development of manufactures and the location of 
large cities ? 

Besides these minerals, various building stones are extensively quar- 
ried, as granite in Scotland, and slate in northern Wales. Salt is also 
found; and there is clay of such excellent quality for earthenware that 
several towns have become noted for their potteries, as Trenton and Cincin- 
nati have in the United States. The extent of the mining industry in the 
United Kingdom is indicated by the fact that there more than half a mill- 
ion persons are employed underground. 

Reasons for Development of Manufacturing. — Considering the 
abundance of coal and iron ore on the one hand, and of wool from 
the millions of sheep on the other, it is clear that Great Britain is 
able to manufacture extensively. Even in very early times the 
English were engaged in the weaving of woollen cloth. Later, 
owing to numerous wars and to the oppression from rulers on the 
continent, England became a refuge for oppressed industrial people 
from the mainland, so that such manufacturing rapidly increased. 

As in New England, the hilly sections have abundant water 



TEE BRITISH ISLES 



289 



power due to the glacier. This also favored manufacturing ; and 
later, when steam was employed, the abundant stores of coal were of 
great importance. The use of steam has led to the building of many 
factories, and to the growth of manufacturing centres. Therefore, 
the making of cloth on hand looms at the homes of the weavers has 
been generally abandoned. 

The peculiar energy and inventive genius of the British, which kept 
their machinery in advance of that used by other nations, must also be 
considered. For example, it was the Scotchman, James Watt, who 
invented the modern steam engine ; and it was George Stephenson who 




Fig. 318. 
A castle in Wales, situated on one of the hills of hard rock. 



invented the first locomotive. The very smallness of the country is 
another advantage ; for no matter where a factory may be located, it is 
near the coal fields and within a few miles of a shipping point. 

Woollen and Cotton Manufactures. — In the mountainous section 
of northern England, near both coal and wool, are hundreds of fac- 
tories engaged in the manufacture of woollen cloth. The principal 
centre of this trade is Leeds, which has the added advantage of 
water power. On the western side of this hilly region is Brad- 
ford, noted for its broadcloth and worsted goods ; and neighboring 
cities manufacture woollen yarn, hosiery, carpets, and blankets. The 
woollen industry extends northward into Scotland and southward to 



290 , EUROPE 

Leicester, whose surrounding plains produce a breed of sheep that 
yields a wool for worsted yarn. 

From the spinning and weaving of wool it was easy to move to 
cotton manufacturing ; and on the western side of the northern 
mountains we find a great cotton-manufacturing industry. Damp- 
ness is one of the points in favor of that section, for in a dry air 
cotton is in danger of becoming too brittle to spin and weave easily. 
Another reason why this work is best developed on the west side of 
the island is the fact that it is nearer the United States, from which 
so much of the raw cotton comes. 

The centre of the cotton manufacturing is Manchester. What 
cities do you find located near by ? This portion of Great Britain, 
including southern Scotland and the two sides of the mountain range 
of northern England, is the seat of the greatest textile industry in 
the world. Can you name cities of New England which are like- 
wise engaged in cotton and woollen manufacture ? 

In spite of the enormous number of sheep in the British Isles, the 
manufacturing industry has so far outgrown the local supply of wool that 
millions of pounds must be imported every year. This condition resem- 
bles that of New England, where much of the wool is brought from Ohio 
and more western states, as well as from foreign countries. As to cotton, 
since the British climate will not permit its cultivation, it is necessary to 
import about two billion pounds a year to supply the mills. Although 
much cotton is now obtained from Egypt, India, and other parts of the 
British Empire, our Southern States still supply the greatest quantity. 

Iron and Steel Manufacturing. — The cities in Great Britain that 
are most noted for iron and steel products are Birmingham and 
Sheffield in England, and Glasgow in Scotland. Birmingham 
manufactures jewelry, watches, firearms, bicycles, steam engines, etc. 
Sheffield has for centuries been distinguished for cutlery, the 
existence of grindstone quarries in the neighborhood being a partial 
reason for this particular industry. Why ? It also manufactures 
steel rails and armor plates for warships. Glasgow is a centre for 
shipbuilding and for the manufacture of locomotives and machinery 
of various kinds. 

In cities round about these places are similar works ; and as in New 
England, many of those occupied with the textile industry also produce 
textile machinery and other iron and steel goods. The island is so small 
that coal and iron are cheaply shipped to various points ; and on this 
account, manufacturing, though best developed near the coal fields, is not 
confined to these districts. 



THE BRITISH ISLES 291 

Thus we see that here, as in the United States, coal makes possi- 
ble an enormous industrial development. But in spite of the forest 
of chimneys in England and southern Scotland, the output of coal is 
more than sufficient to meet the demands. The materials to be manu- 
factured, however, are not sufficient ; for all the cotton, much of the 
wool, and part of the iron ore must be imported. 

These three industries, connected with cotton, wool, and iron, 
have made Great Britain one of the great work-shops of the world. 
The most important is cotton manufacturing ; iron ranks next, and 
wool is third. 

Ireland. — Ireland forms a striking contrast to Great Britain in 
several respects. In the first place it is mainly a country of farms 
instead of manufactures. The mild climate and damp atmosphere 




The Clyde, at Glasgow. Fifty years ago the river could be forded at this place, but it has 
been deepened by dredging so that the largest vessels now enter. 

insure excellent grass throughout the year, and about four-fifths of 
the farm land is in pasture. It follows, therefore, that great numbers 
of cattle, sheep, and horses are raised. As in Great Britain, the prin- 
cipal grain is oats ; but barley, wheat, potatoes, and turnips are also 
raised. 

Again, unlike Great Britain, Ireland is very barren of minerals. 
Building stones, such as granite, marble, and sandstone, are found, 
but there is extremely little coal or iron. For that reason, whatever 
manufacturing has been developed is located chiefly on the eastern 
side, where coal is easily obtained from England or Scotland. At 
one point the two islands are only thirteen miles apart. 

The lack of coal for use in the homes is partly made up by the abun- 
dance of " turf " or peat. Owing to the deposits of glacial drift, which 



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have obstructed the streams (Fig. 320), the level interior is so poorly 
drained that marshes or bogs occupy about one-twelfth of the entire sur- 
face of the island. The water in these bogs protects the swamp vegetation 
from decay, so that it accumulates, forming a sod, which, when dug up and 
dried, makes a fairly good fuel. It will be remembered that similar de- 
posits, in the larger swamps of the Coal Period, caused the coal beds which 
are now of so much value (p. 3). 

While manufacturing is little developed, there is one kind that 
flourishes in Ireland ; namely, the making of linen. The Irish linens, 
which take high rank in our country, are made from the inner bark 
of the flax plant. Flax is grown in various parts of the United States, 




Fig. 320. 

The famous lakes of Killarney in the hilly part of southwestern Ireland, 
where glacial drift has obstructed the drainage. 



They are formed 



but mainly for the sake of the seed, from which linseed oil is made 
for use in mixing paints and in making varnish. In Ireland, how- 
ever, flax is raised chiefly for its fibre. 

The damp climate of Ireland is favorable to the growth of flax, and the 
cheap labor makes possible the great amount of care required in preparing 
it for the manufacture of linen. The stem of flax is tall and slender, and 
a field of it presents somewhat the same appearance as a field of oats. 
Instead of being cut, like grain, it is pulled up and left lying upon the 
ground for some time, exposed to the dew and weather, so that the gummy 
substance, which holds the woody matter and fibre together, may decay. 
After the fibre has been separated from the woody core by machinery, it is 
split and combed out with a steel brush and thus made ready for spinning. 

Travellers in northern Ireland in summer see field after field covered 
with flax, which is used chiefly in linen factories at Belfast. The fibre 



THE BBITI8H ISLES 293 

is made into thread in much the same manner as cotton or wool, and this 
is then woven into napkins, tablecloths, etc. Name other articles made of 
linen. 

Ireland forms a third contrast to Great Britain in regard to popula- 
tion. Not only is it far less densely peopled, but the number of inhabitants 
is decreasing. Partly because of the unfavorable laws imposed by England, 
the Irish have long been discontented with their lot ; and since the disastrous 
potato famine in 1847, they have been abandoning the country. They have 
sought refuge chiefly in America, and since the date mentioned, the num. 
ber of inhabitants has been reduced from 8,000,000 to 5,000,000. 

Location of Principal Cities. — The cities most distinguished for 
manufacturing have already been mentioned; namely, Leeds, Brad- 
ford, Manchester, Sheffield, Birmingham, and Glasgow. 
What industries are developed in each ? 

There are other large cities along the coast ; for so much 'manu- 
facturing calls for an enormous import of raw materials and food, 
as well as the expol"t of manufactured goods. These cities must, 
therefore, be the gateways to and from the island. And since Great 
Britain lies rather far north, between Europe and the New World 
these shipping points must be located on the eastern, western, and 
southern sides, at those points where the best harbors exist, and not 
far from the great industrial centres. 

First among the coastal cities to be noted is London, with 
Bristol opposite it on the west. Farther north is Hull, with 
Liverpool on the opposite side ; and in southern Scotland is 
Edinburgh, near the coast, paired with Glasgow on the west. 
On the south side the two most important ports are Southamp- 
ton and Portsmouth. What are the principal cities of Ireland ? 
Steamships, railway lines, and canals connect the various cities, 
carrying immense quantities of freight. In Great Britain and 
Ireland there are nearly four thousand miles of canal and over 
twenty-one thousand miles of railway. 

London. — This city, the largest in the world, is situated on the 
Thames River. The Thames, like many other British rivers, has a 
wide, deep mouth, owing to the sinking of the land, and London is 
located as far inland as high tide allows vessels to go, or fifty miles 
from the open sea. The advantage of this position lies in the fact 
that it is in the interior of the island, yet has direct water com- 
munication with foreign countries. 

As in all great cities, one of the principal industries is manu- 



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facturing, nearly all kinds of goods being made, as in New York, 
Chicago, and Philadelphia. But New York, we know, owes its 
greatness largely to the fact that it is the gateway to a vast pro- 
ductive interior, while almost any point in England may be reached 
by rail from London in a few hours. Nevertheless, although Great 
Britain is small, its population is nearly one-half as great as that of 
the United States, and the port of London is the point of entrance 
for much of its food. 

In fact, this is the greatest shipping point in the world. Its rows of 
piers extend twenty miles down the river, and its railways radiate in all 




Fig. 321. 
Commerce on the Thames below Loudon Bridge. 



directions (Fig. 322). However, the fact that London lacks coal and iron 
near at hand, places it at some disadvantage compared with Liverpool 
and Glasgow. 

Besides being the capital of the British Empire (Fig. 312), which 
is the name applied to the United Kingdom and its dependencies, 
London is the centre for the publication of books and magazines, 
and is provided with noted picture galleries, libraries, museums, and 
many magnificent buildings. Its wealth and trade are so extensive 
that it has been the money centre of the world, though New York, 
the money centre of the United States, now rivals it. The leading 
bank, called the Bank of England, is the agent of the government 




Fig. 322. 

The location of London and of Liverpool. 

295 



296 



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in many of its business transactions, and employs about a thousand 
persons. 

Being a very old city, many of the London streets are narrow and 
crooked. Some of the principal streets are too narrow for street cars, so 
that, unlike American cities, the people have to be transported mainly by 
omnibuses. One of the largest companies runs thirteen hundred busses, 
and employs five thousaiLd men and fifteen thousand horses. However, 
an underground railway, which encircles the great city, running under 
houses and streets, carries an enormous number of passengers. 

Near London are many places of interest. Just below the city, on the 
south side of the river, is the Greenwich observatory (p. 34), from which 
meridians of longitude are numbered and time is regulated. A few miles 




Fig. 323. 
Windsor Castle. 

up the river is Windsor Castle (Fig. 323), the palace of the sovereigns of 
the Empire. Find Cambridge and Oxford (Fig. 322), the two leading 
university towns of Great Britain. 

Other English Cities. — Southwest of London, on the coast, is 
Southampton, where ocean steamers from the United States often 
stop (Fig. 327), and where fast trains wait to convey passengers to 
the metropolis. Close to Southampton is Portsmouth, which has 
a great navy yard. 

Almost due west of London, at the mouth of the Severn Eiver, is 
Bristol, Avhich is engaged in the lumber trade and in the manufacture of 
tobacco and chocolate. It was formerly next to London in size, but Liver- 
pool has now far outstripped it. Can you suggest some reason why ? 
Just west of Bristol is Cardiff in Wales, the chief point in Great Britain 
for the export of coal. 



THE BBITISII ISLES 



297 



Knowing the occupation of the dense population in northern 
England, we can tell the principal exports of Hull and Liverpool. 
What must they be ? The former city naturally trades mainly with 
Europe, and the latter w^ith the Americas and West Africa. 

Before the discovery of the New World, the west side of Great 
Britain had little commerce, and Liverpool (Fig. 322), therefore, 
had little business or growth. But with the settlement of America 
the city grew until it now has an immense trade with North and 
South America, and is the third city in size in the United Kingdom. 
Many passengers from America land at this port and go by rail to 
London. Besides its commerce, Liverpool is also important for its 
shipbuilding. What circumstances are favorable to that industry ? 
A ship canal, about thirty-five miles in length, has recently been 
built to Manchester, at 
an expense of 175,000,000. 

Cities of Scotland. — 
Glasgow (Fig. 319), on 
the western side of the 
lowland plain of southern 
Scotland, is not only a 
great manufacturing 
centre, but it is also a 
leading shipping point for 
the same reasons that Liv- 
erpool is. State them. 
What must be some of its 
principal imports and ex- 
ports ? Why ? 

Edinburgh, unlike 
the other great cities 
named, is neither a ship- 
ping point nor an impor- 
tant manufacturing centre. 
It is distinguished as the 
capital of Scotland, and as 
one of the most beautiful cities of the British Isles. Its importance 
is historical rather than commercial ; for in the early days it com- 
manded the entrance to the lowland of southern Scotland. The 
well-known University of Edinburgh is situated here. Leith, a 
short distance away, is the port for Edinburgh. 




Fig. 324. 
The churchyard described in Gray's " Elegy." 



298 



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Farther north on the coast are the important ports of Dundee and 
Aberdeen (p. 287). The former sends forth a number of Arctic whaling 
vessels each year, and is also engaged in the manufacture of linen. 




Fig. 325. 
Kenilworth Castle, described by Scott iu " Keiiilworth. 



Cities of Ireland. — The principal cities of Ireland are on the east 
and south sides. Why ? What has already been said about Bel- 
fast ? (p. 292.) It is also noted for its shipbuilding. Dublin, 
the capital and largest city, and the chief port for the English trade, 
ships farm and other products to England and receives manufac- 
tured goods in return. 
Qlteenstown has a fine 
harbor, and is a port of 
call for vessels bound from 
America to Great Britain. 
Fuller Reasons for the 
Greatness of the British 
Empire. — While we have 
learned many facts about 
the British Isles, some im- 
portant questions are not 
yet fully answered. For 
example, why does this 
little country possess more 
colonies (Fig. 312) than 
any other nation of the 
earth ? Further, why should it have the greatest foreign trade ? 
And why the greatest number of vessels upon the sea ? 




Fig. ;;i.'ii. 

Shakespeare's house at Stratford-on-Avon. Since this 
picture was taken, the house has been somewhat 
changed in appearance. 



THE BRITISH ISLES 



299 



■i-^^-^^S- 



Some of the reasons in answer to these questions are as follows. 
The fact that Great Britain is so small — it is impossible to find a 
point more than seventy miles from the salt water — is a reason why 
many of the British have been sailors. It is not surprising, there- 
fore, that they have produced many 
explorers. 

Nor is it to be wondered at that, as 
these explorers discovered new parts of 
the world, they laid claim to them in the 
name of their mother country. In this 
way, and by war, Great Britain came 
into possession of the Thirteen Colonies 
of North America, Canada, India, Aus- 
tralia, much of Africa, and many other 
places (Fig. 312). At present her terri- 
tory includes about one-fifth of the land 
surface of the globe and one-fourth of 
its inhabitants. 

These colonies and dependencies help 
to explain Great Britain's enormous 
foreign commerce ; for the colonies have 
found it more advantageous to trade 
with the mother country than with other 
nations speaking a different language 
and having less understanding of them 
or sympathy with them. They sell to 
her their raw products, including food, 
and she in return sends to them clothing, 
steel goods, and other manufactured articles. It is largely the ex- 
change of goods with these colonies that has made the foreign trade 
of Great Britain nearly twice that of any other nation. Next to her 
colonies Great Britain's greatest trade is with the United States. 

Some of the reasons why this little island should own more 
vessels than any other nation have already appeared. In fishing, 
exploring, and making settlements, a large number of ships have 
been needed ; and for the proper defence of her widely distributed 
colonies many warships have been required. Another reason for so 
large a navy is the fact that the British Isles are cut off from all 
other nations by water. They must, therefore, rely rather upon 
warships for defence than upon a standing army. 




Fig. 327. 

A large German steamship which 
stops at Southampton ; to show 
its great size in comparison with 
a high building in New York City 
and with the Washington Monu- 
ment (555 feet high) . The length 
of this steamer is 648 feet, its 
width 66, and its depth 43 feet. 



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Further than this, the British are actually forced to own many 
ships. Here are over forty million people living on two small 
islands, from whose soil it is impossible to obtain the necessary food. 
They must send ships away for their flour, meat, sugar, coffee, etc. ; 
and they must send abroad for much of their raw material for manu- 
facture. Also in order to pay for the raw materials and food, their 
manufactured goods must be shipped to all parts of the world ; 
otherwise their extensive manufacturing would be impossible. 

These facts, coupled with the remarkable energy of the British, 
are the principal reasons why the United Kingdom greatly surpasses 
all other nations in the number of her warships and merchant vessels. 

Government. — The government of the United Kingdom is a limited 
monarchy, the present ruler being King Edward VII. We know 




Fig. 328. 
The House of Parliament. 



that in the United States our general laws are made at Washington 
by a Congress composei of a Senate and a House of Representatives. 
In the United Kingdom the law-making body corresponding to this 
is called Parliament. It is likewise composed of two bodies, the 
House of Lords and the House of Commons. 

The House of Lords is made up of men with inherited titles who 
are not elected by the people. In former times the Lords were so 
powerful that the people had little control of the government ; but for 
many generations their power has been restricted, and the Hoxise of Com- 
mons, whose members are elected by popular vote, is now by far the more 
important. Through them the people are able to make their own laws, 
and the government is therefore one of great freedom. 



THE BRITISH ISLES 301 

While the sovereign is nominally the executive, like our President? 
the execution of laws is really in charge of a Cabinet composed of a Prime 
Minister and several other Ministers, who are responsible to the House of 
Commons for their actions. If the Ministers lose the support of the 
House, they are obliged to resign ; and then others are appointed who will 
carry out the wishes of the people. 

Review Questions. — (1) Give the location and area of the British Isles. 
(2) What noteworthy facts about their importance? (3) What about the inhabit- 
ants? (4) Tell about their climate. (5) Their physiography. (6) The effects 
of the ice sheet. (7) The coast line. (8) Why is so much of the land in grass? 
(9) Tell about the live stock. (10) What crops cannot be raised? Why? 
(11) What are the principal farm products? (12) What disadvantage do the 
people suffer in regard to food supply? (13) Give the principal facts about the 
fishing industry. (14) What metals are found in small quantities ? (15) How 
about the abundance of coal and iron ore? (16) Locate the chief coal fields in 
Great Britain. (17) Tell about the iron ore in Great Britain. (18) Name other 
important mineral products. (19) Give reasons for the development of textile 
manufacturing in Great Britain. (20) What cities are especially noted for the 
manufacture of woollen goods ? (21) For cotton? (22) Tell about the manufac 
ture of iron and steel goods. (23) What about the farm products of Ireland? 
What about minerals there ? (24) About manufacturing ? (25) What is used 
for fuel? (26) Tell about the linen industry of Ireland? (27) About the popu- 
lation. (28) Name and locate the cities in Great Britain that are distinguished 
for manufacturing. (29) Name and locate the principal coast cities. (30) Tell 
about London : its location, principal kinds of business, etc. (31) What noted 
places are near by? (32) Tell about each of the other cities mentioned. Locate 
each. (33) Give some reasons why the British Isles have more colonies than any 
other country. (34) Why more foreign trade ? (35) Why the greatest number 
of vessels ? (36) Tell about their government. 

Suggestions. — (1) On a sketch map of Great Britain mark the position of 
the highlands and lowlands. (2) Considering the prevailing winds, whicli side of 
the great cities must be most free from smoke? (3) Why are sheep able to eat 
shorter grass than cattle ? (4) Make a list of goods made out of flax, and place 
samples in the school cabinet. (5) Write a paper telling in what ways the people 
of the British Isles and the United States depend on one another. (6) State ways 
in which New England and Great Britain resemble each other. (7) What names 
of British cities have you met in your study of the United States ? In what por- 
tion of the United States are they ? (8) Collect pictures of scenes in the British 
Isles. (9) What books have you read which describe the scenery or the people of 
these islands? (10) Find out other facts about the large steamships. (11) What 
advantages do you see in the fact that the British Isles are near the continent, yet 
separated by water ? (12) Read in George Eliot's " Silas Marner " for a description 
of old-fashioned manufacturing by hand looms. (13) Also in " John Halifax, 
Gentleman," for an account of the introduction of steam into the factories. 
(14) Read Gray's " Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard." (15) Read Scott's 
"Kenilworth." (16) Find out some facts about Queen Victoria. (17) What do 
you know about Shakespeare ? 

For References to books and articles see Teacher's Book. 



III. THE NETHERLANDS AND BELGIUM 

Map Questions (Fig. 337). — (1) Compare the area of the Netherlands with 
that of Belgium; with that of Great Britain. (2) Compare the coast lines of the 
Netherlands and Belgium. (3) What large river crosses the Netherlands? 
Through what countries does it pass? (4) AVhat countries border the Nether- 
lands ? (5) Belgium ? (6) Make an outline map of these two countries. 



The Netherlands (Holland) 

Physiography. — Figure 329 shows the Netherlands to be a pecul- 
iar country. The greater portion is very low, and some parts are as 

much as fifteen feet below sea 
level. In fact, if protection 
against sea and river were not 
provided, about one-half of the 
surface would be occasionally or 
permanently under water. This 
explains why the country, some- 
times called Holland, is more com- 
monly known as the Netherlands, 
a word meaning low country. 



The Rhine has brought much of 
the soil ; some of it, no doubt, all the 
way from the Alps. A large part 
of the country is, in fact, a delta of 
sand and clay built by the Rhine, 
and it is so low and level that over 
much of the surface the only notable 
elevations are either sand dunes, 
thrown up by the wind, or glacial moraines of sand and gravel. In Figure 
306 notice how far the ice sheet advanced in this section. Hard rocks are 
found only in the eastern and southeastern parts, where the highest point 
is a little over a thousand feet. 




Fig. 329. 

Map to show the portion of the Netherlands 
that is below sea level. 



In SO level a country there can be little water power ; and little 
mineral wealth may be expected in the soft clays and sands. Some 
iron is found in the bogs, which are extensive, and a small amount 

302 



THE NETHEBLANBS 303 

of coal is mined in the extreme southeast. Under the circumstances, 
is there promise of much manufacturing? 

Owing to all these disadvantages the Netherlands might seem to 
be incapable of supporting a large population. Nevertheless that 
country has about two-thirds as many inhabitants as the remarkably 
productive state of New York, which is four times as large. 

People and Government. — Perhaps the leading explanation of this 
prosperity is the high character of the Butch people, as the Nether- 
landers are called. For centuries they have felt an intense love for 
civil and religious liberty ; but, being a small nation, they have 
suffered many hardships in attempting to establish independence and 




Fig. 392. 
A farm scene on the plains of Holland. 

tolerant laws. At one time they were under German control ; later 
they came under the cruel rule of Spain ; but finally they obtained 
their independence, and their form of government is now a limited 
monarchy. 

While their belief in freedom brought them untold suffering, it was a 
cause of progress as well. It was to Holland that the Pilgrims first fled 
when religious persecutions drove them from England ; and from time to 
time large numbers of Huguenots, Germans, and others found refuge 
there. Their settlement in the Netherlands had a great influence on the 
intelligence with which Dutch industries were developed. 

Agriculture. — Agriculture, including grazing, is the principal 
industry of the kingdom, although, largely on account of swamps 
and sand dunes,- a hfth of its area is waste land. The principal 
farm products are grains, such as rye, oats, wheat, barley, and 
buckwheat ; also potatoes, sugar beets, beans, peas, and flax. More 
land is devoted to pasturage (Fig. 330) than to these crops, partly 



304 



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because much of the higher hmd is too sandy for cultivation, and 
partly because the moisture in the lowlands aids in the growth of 
excellent grass. Cattle, hogs, sheep, and horses are raised in great 

numbers ; and quantities 
of butter and cheese are 
made. 



There is, of course, good 
reason why the Dutch have 
been willing to endure the 
labor and danger involved 
in reclaiming large tracts of 
land from the sea. As the 
population increased, and the 
need of new farm land grew, 
it was found possible to keep 
the high tides and rivers 
from overflowing the salt 
marshes and flood plains. 
In this way the people have 
added large areas of fertile 
land, and have also been en- 
couraged to u.ndertake the 
even more difficult task of 
reclaiming the shallow sea 
bottom. 
Such drainage began in the twelfth century and has continued until 
the present day. It has already about doubled the area of the ISTether- 
lands, and now a scheme is under way to reclaim the Zuider Zee itself 
(Fig. 329). 

The ditches for draining the land really form canals, which, by means 
of their embankments, enclose houses, gardens, and fields, much as fences 
or stone walls enclose houses and gardens in other countries. . They are 
so numerous that they extend over the lowlands in a great network. 

Manufacturing. — Although there is very little coal or water 
power in the kingdom, there is an abundance of coal near by in 
Belgium, Germany, and England. Accordingly, since the people 
require quantities of cloth, shoes, machinery, etc., they import coal 
and many necessary raw materials in order to manufacture for 
themselves. The strangers who fled to the Netherlands to escape 
persecution did much toward developing early manufacturing, and 
this industry now ranks next in importance to agriculture. 

Commerce. — Commerce is highly developed for several reasons. 
In the first place, the ditches, built primarily for purpose of drainage, 



Fig. 331. 
A Dutch windmill. 



THE NETHERLANDS 



805 



are also valuable as canals ; and these, together with the rivers, make 
transportation by water very easy to all sections of the country. 
The flat-topped dikes also make excellent wagon roads ; and the 
level nature of the land renders the construction of tramways and 
railways a simple matter. Many of the railways connect directly 
with the European trunk lines. 

In the second place, the position of Holland gives her a distinct 
commercial advantage. The Netherlands lie directly in the path of 
entrance to northern Europe, and the country is crossed by the 
Rhine River, which is navigable for a long distance into Germany. 
Therefore much of the American and British trade with central 
Europe is carried on through Holland. 




Fig. 332. 
A canal in Amsterdam. Notice the peculiar fronts of the Dutch houses. 

Colonies. — The Dutch colonies (Fig. 353) furnish a third reason for an 
extensive development of commerce. Since the very earliest times the 
Dutch have been in close contact with the salt water. Not only have they 
battled with the sea in reclaiming land, but to visit some of their near 
neighbors they have been obliged to cross it. Moreover, both the Zuider 
Zee and the North Sea, near at hand, contain many food fish ; and this 
fact has led to development of the fisheries, one of the leading industries 
of the country. 

The men have therefore become expert sailors ; and when discoveries 
of new lands were being made, the Dutch sailors naturally shared in the 
explorations and established colonies. 

The attempt of the Dutch to colonize our Hudson valley was thwarted 
by the English ; but Holland retains possession of other important regions. 



306 EUROPE 

Of these, Dutch Guiana in South America has already been mentioned 
(p. 262) ; but the most important are Java and several other East India 
islands. The manufacture of raw products from the colonies constitutes 
one of the principal industries of the coast cities. 

The possession of these colonies, Holland's position, her water and rail 
connections with other countries, and her many canals and excellent roads 
make the transportation of goods an important industry. 

Cities. — Amsterdam and Rotterdam are the two principal 
commercial centres. The former, the largest city in the Netherlands, 
is about the size of Baltimore. It is connected with the ocean by 
canal, and is noted for its university and museums, as well as its 
shipping", manufacturing, and diamond cutting. The rulers of Hol- 
land are crowned at Amsterdam, the capital, although the royal family 
resides at The Hague, where the government buildings are situated. 

Rotterdam, next to Amsterdam in size, is the great seaport of 
the Netherlands. Its location near the moiith of the Rhine makes 
it one of the principal ports for the interior of the continent, and 
explains why it is the European terminus for some of the great 
steamship lines from New York and other parts of the world. 

Belgium 

Physiography. — ■ The surface of Belgium forcibly recalls that of 
Holland. The land is low and flat in the northern and western 
parts, and gradually rises and grows more rolling toward the south 
and east. 

However, the highest point in Belgium (2230 feet) is more than 
twice that in the Netherlands. Instead of being caused by glacial 
moraines and sand dunes, this highland is a mountainous region, 
formed by upheaval of the earth's crust (Fig. 333). The weathering 
of ages, which has worn these mountains so low, has revealed valu- 
able mineral deposits, especially coal and iron, which fortunately 
occur near together, as in England. Lead, zinc, and silver are also 
obtained. 

Belgium, therefore, possesses agricultural advantages similar to 
those of Holland, while the minerals secure opportunities for manu- 
facturing far superior to those of the Dutch. These facts help to 
explain why, although Belgium is even smaller than Holland, its 
population is one-fourth larger, or about 6,500,000. How does that 
compare with the population of New York state ? Indeed, the small 
country of Belgium is one of the most densely populated regions on 



BELGIUM 



307 



the earth. Figure out the number of inhabitants per square mile 
and compare it with the number in New York, or in your own 
state. 

People and Government. — Like the Dutch, the Belgians have 
endured untold sufferings in their long struggle for independence. 
Their country has been, to some extent, a battlefield for the larger 
countries or powers of Europe ; for example, the battle of Waterloo, 
by which the career of Napoleon Bonaparte was ended, was fought 
there in 1815. Since 1830, however, the Belgians have been inde- 
pendent. Their form of government is a limited monarchy. 

The intelligence of the Belgians is of the highest order. Even during 
the Middle Ages their woollen manufactures were the best developed in 




Fig. 333. 

A view in the hilly section of southern Belgium. 

Europe, and at various times the kings of England have induced Belgian 
artisans to move to England for the purpose of improving the factory 
work. Since the great nations of Europe have declared Belgium neutral 
territory, thus prohibiting further fighting there, the people have found it 
necessary to keep only a small standing army, and have devoted themselves 
to the industries. As a result, Belgium has enjoyed a wonderful industrial 
growth. 

Agriculture. — A very small part of Belgium is below sea level ; 
but, as in the Netherlands, much of the country is so flat and fertile 
that a view on the Belgian plain would closely resemble that in Fig- 



308 



EUROPE 



ure 330. More than half the inhabitants are engaged in agriculture, 
the chief products, besides live stock, being grain, flax, hemp, fruit, 
and sugar beets. Among the farm animals, the Flemish ^ horses are 
especially noted for their great size and strength. 

The Belgian method of farming forms a striking contrast to that in the 
United States ; for instead of ranging from one hundred to several thou- 
sand acres, farms in Belgium usually 
contain not more than two or three 
acres. To a large extent, spading 
takes the place of ploughing, and 
such hand labor, guided by the ex- 
perience of many generations, secures 
large yields of the best quality. 
Flemish flax is the best in the world. 
In spite of such careful cultivation of 
the soil much food has to be imported, 
as in G-reat Britain. 



Mining and Manufacturing. — 

Quite distinct from the level 
northern plain, close set with 
farms and towns, is the hilly 
region of the southern angle, cov- 
ered with forests and rich in 







" 1 





Fig. 334. 
A dog team in Belgium. 



minerals. More than one hundred thousand men are engaged in min- 
ing, and coal and coke are among the leading exports. Around the 
northwest slope of the hilly region is located one of the world's 
busiest industrial regions. As in England, the three important 
kinds of manufacturing; are cotton, wool, and iron and steel. 
Linen and glass are also made. But the country is so small, and 
there are so many waterways and railways, — as in the Netherlands, 
— that coal is transported cheaply to all sections. Manufacturing, 
therefore, is Avell distributed, although the coal comes from the south. 
Commerce. — By its position Belgium secures many of the advan- 
tages that Holland enjoys ; that is, it is a gateway to and from the 
interior of Europe. To be sure, its coast line is only about forty 
miles in length and the water there is shallow ; but Antwerp has 
an excellent harbor. There is no large river like the Rhine in 



1 Derived from Flanders, a former country of Europe which included a part of the 
Netherlands, Belgium, and France. Nearly half the Belgians speak the Elemish 
language. 



BELGIUM 



309 



Holland, but two smaller streams, rising in France, are navigable 
for some distance. There is also an extensive system of canals. 
Besides these waterways, Belgium has more miles of railway, for its 
size, than any other country ; and the railways are closely connected 
with the large trunk lines. For these reasons transportation of 
goods is one of the leading industries in Belgium. 

While the Belgians do not possess such valuable colonies as the Dutch 
they have been prominent in African exploration. It was the Belgian 
king who sent Stanley to Africa, and the King of Belgium is sovereign of 
Kon.aro State. 




Fig. 335. 
A view in Ghent. Notice the peculiar architecture of the houses. 

Cities. — Brussels, the capital and largest city, situated in the 
heart of the kingdom, is about the size of Boston. The name 
Brussels carpets suggests one of its industries ; but carriage and 
lace making are at present among its most important kinds of 
manufacture. It is an intellectual as well as a political and com- 
mercial centre, having numerous picture galleries, museums, and 
schools. 

Antwerp, next in size, is situated about sixty miles from the 
sea, on a small river. Some of the great steamship lines from New 
York have their European terminus there, and the port is one of the 
most important in Europe. The leading kinds of manufacturing 
are sugar refining, distilling, lace making, and shipbuilding. 



310 EUROPE 

Many other cities are distinguished for manufacturing. The largest 
are Liege, the " Birmingham of Belgium," engaged in the manufacture of 
fire-arms, cutlery, glass, and various kinds of machinery; and Ghent (Fig. 
335), noted for linen and cotton goods, and for machinery. 

Luxemburg, on the southeastern border of Belgium, is a small duchy 
governed by a hereditary grand duke. and a parliament. Like Belgium, 
by agreement of the powers of Europe, it is neutral territory. Agricul- 
ture, iron mining, and manufacturing are the principal industries. 

Review Questions. — The Netherlands. — (1) Tell about the physiography 
of Holland. (2) What are the principal mineral products? (3) How does Hol- 
land compare with New York in size and population ? (4) Tell about the people ; 
the government ; agriculture. (5) State reasons for reclaiming the land. (6) What 
about manufacturing? (7) Give three reasons for the extensive development of 
Dutch commerce. (8) How have the Dutch come to have several important colo- 
nies ? (9) Name the principal colonies. (10) Tell about the chief cities. 

Belgium. — (11) Compare Belgium with Holland as to physiography. 
(12) Tell about the importance of Belgium; its people and government; its agri- 
culture; its mining and manufacturing. (13) What reasons are there for its 
important commerce? (1-1) What about colonies? (15) Locate and tell about 
each of the cities. (16) What about Luxemburg? 

Suggestions. — The Netherlands. — (1) Why are the winds likely to blow 
with special force and regularity across Holland ? (2) Why is this fact of value 
to the Dutch ? (3) What effect must the winds have upon the rank vapors that 
rise from the damp soil? (4) What do you know about the flower gardens of the 
the Dutch? (5) Have you seen any Dutch jjottery, especially Delft wares? 

(6) Why did not the Pilgrims remain in Holland instead of coming to America? 

(7) Why should not Rotterdam be as large a city as New York? (8) Find out 
about the Peace Conference of 1899 at The Hague. (9) What reasons are there 
for selecting a small country like Holland for this purpose, and for making treaties 
between nations which have been at war? 

Belgium. — (10) There are greater extremes of temperature in Belgium than 
in England. Why? (11) Find oUt some facts about the battle of Waterloo. 
(12) Give several reasons for spading instead of ploughing land. (13) Examine 
a piece of lace. From what material is lace manufactured, and how is the work 
done? (14) Towns in Belgium usually have two names. Why? (15) Would 
you expect fishing to be as important an industry with the Belgians as with the 
Dutch ? Why ? 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 




Fig. 338. 

To show Paris and suiTounding country. Notice how closely the railways follow 
the stream valleys. Why should they? 




Fig. 337. 

Map Questions : France. — (1) France is the nearest country to the British 
Isles. Estimate the distance. (2) Compare the two countries as to area. (3) As 
to population. (4) What waters border France ? (.5) What countries? ((!) In 
what respects is its position favorable to commerce ? (7) What do you observe about 
the general direction of the rivers ? (8) Locate the island of Corsica, a part of France. 



IV. FRANCE 



(For Map Questions, See Map, Fig. 337.) 



people and Government. — The early inhabitants of France, called 
Gauls, were conquered by the Romans, who taught them their lan- 
guage and many of their customs. After the fall of Rome, France 
was divided into independent kingdoms, which were often at war 
with one another or with neighboring countries. 

The situation of France has, however, tended to bring the king- 
doms together ; for the country is enclosed on two sides by the sea, 
and elsewhere, in large 
part, by mountains. No- 
tice how completely the 
Pyrenees separate France 
from Spain ; and what a 
barrier the lofty Alps form 
along the Italian and Swiss 
boundaries. Even north 
of the Alps, a part of the 
boundary is formed by 
highlands. While the in- 
habitants were thus partly 
protected from invasion, 
there were few barriers 
within France itself that 
kept them apart. It was not difficult, therefore, to bring them under 
one rule. At present France has a republican form of government. 

Monaco in the southeast, and Andorra in the Pyrenees (p. 321), are the 
only exceptions. The principality of Monaco, only eight square miles in 
area, is a noted winter resort because of the fine climate. 

Physiography and Climate. — As we have seen, the chief high- 
lands of France are in the south and southeast. Among these high- 
lands the loftiest are the Alps, whose highest peak, Mt. Blanc 

311 




Fig. 336. 
A valley on the French side of the Pyrenees. 



312 



EUROPE 



(15,781 feet), is in France. Had the mountains stretched along the 
western coast, the history of France would have been very different. 
As it is, the prevailing westerlies are allowed ,to distribute their 
rain somewhat evenly over the country, supplying all sections with 

an abundance of moisture 
for agriculture. 

The position of the high- 
lands is of great importance 
for commerce as well as 
for farming. Fully three- 
fourths of France is a 
comparatively level plain 
sloping westward from the 
low central plateau, which 
rises steeply as the western 
wall of the long Rhone 
valley. All but one of the 
large rivers rise in this 
plateau, and flow gently 
down its slope to the 
Atlantic. Thus naviga- 
tion is possible far into 
the country. Locate and 
name the three largest 
rivers. How does the 
Rhone differ from the other 
two ? 

As might be expected, the summers are warmer than in England, 
since France lies almost entirely south of that country and is less 
under the influence of the ocean. The southeastern section, though 
as far north as Boston, has a semi-tropical climate (Fig. 340), 
owing to the presence of the warm Mediterranean waters and to 
the protection from cold north winds afforded by the Alps (pp. 280 
and 281). 

Agriculture. — France is primarily a farming country, and nearly 
half the people devote their energies to agriculture, including graz- 
ing. The same grains are raised as in England. What are they ? 
(p. 286). Wheat is the most important, and more of this grain is 
produced than in any other European country excepting Russia. Yet 
France raises only about half as much wheat as the United States, 




Fig. 339. 

A view in central southern France (Monts d'Au- 
vergne on the map). This is a region of extinct 
volcanoes, and the church is built upon a steep 
lava hill. 



FRANCE 



313 



and not nearly enough for the needs of her people. Grapes, not 
important in the British Isles, thrive in the warmer climate of central 
and southern France. 




Fig. 340. 

A street scene in Nice (near Monaco), showing the nature of the vegetation in that warm 
climate. Find out whether Nice is north or south of your home. 



Grapes form the most valuable of all Erencli crops, and more are 
raised in France than in any other country of the world. This fruit, 
although capable of enduring severe cold, requires a warm summer. The 
distribution of the vineyards, therefore, shows forcibly the difference 
between the climates of England and France. Grapes do not mature well 
in northern France, but they 
flourish in the warm valleys 
from the Loire southward. 

As in other countries, 
the highlands, as a rule, 
are capable of little culti- 
vation and are usually given 
over to grazing. Give 
examples from other coun- 
tries. As in England, too, 
there are broad tracts of 
loAvland which are better 
adapted to the producti on 
of grass than to other crops. 
These facts explain why 
there are more than thirteen million cattle and twenty-one million 
sheep in France. What does that signify in regard to manufacturing? 




Fig. y^i. 

A farm scene in southern central France. The moun- 
tain peak is an extinct volcano, one of the Monts 
d'Auvergne (Figs. 337 and 339). 



314 



EUROPE 



Minerals. — France is quite inferior to the British Isles in its 
mineral products. Coal is the most valuable mineral ; but while 
Great Britain, after supplying her many factories, exports a large 
amount of coal, France has to import some. The principal coal 
beds, from which more than half the output comes, lie close to Bel- 
gium. They are, in fact, a continuation of the deposits that were 
found to be so plentiful in that country. The other beds are small 
and scattered, but the best of them lie near the centre of the coun- 
try, not far from St. Etienne. Of what advantage is this location ? 

The quantity of iron produced is small and conies mainly from the 
northeast, near the coal fields. Pine clays for porcelain abound in cen- 
tral France, and building stones 
are quarried in nearly every 
part. 

Manufacturing. — In spite 
of the limited supply of fuel, 
France is a great manufactur- 
ing nation. Besides silk and 
wine, in the production of 
which this country is the 
leading nation of the world, 
there is extensive manu- 
facturing of metal, cotton, 
and woollen goods. One 
reason for these manufactures 
is the fact that coal is easily obtained, either in France or from the 
neighboring countries of Belgium, Germany, and England. Another 
reason has to do with the nature of the people themselves. 

The Frenchman has a peculiar appreciation of what is graceful, 
delicate, and elegant. This is illustrated by the fact that our fashions 
in dress originate in France; and a skirt, a pair of gloves, or a bonnet 
from Paris is expected to be a trifle more desirable than one bought else- 
where. The French have accordingly specialized in this direction ; and 
thus their artistic sense has had great influence upon both the kind and 
amount of their manufacturing. 

Wool and Cotton Manufactures. — The northern part of France, 
including Lille, Roubaix, and Reims, as well as cities near the 
mouth of the Seine, is the section especially noted for the woollen 
industry. Here coal is most easily obtained ; and large numbers of 
sheep are raised on the hills and plains near by. Besides this, foreign 




Fig. 342. 
A village in southern France. 



FRANCE 315 

« 
wool from Argentina and Australia is easily imported at Havre and 
at the Belgian port of Antwerp. Remembering that the goods turned 
out — as hosiery, carpets, and underclothing — are of high grade, and 
such as wealthy people wish, we see that this location, between the 
two wealthiest capitals of the world, is especially advantageous. 
Woollen cloths are, next to silk goods, the most important French 
export to Great Britain. 

Cotton manufacturing — mainly for the home market, as indi- 
cated above — is also extensively developed near the coal fields of 
northern France. An important reason for such work at this point 
is the ease with which American cotton may be imported ; and this 
explains why Rouen on the Seine is a prominent centre for cotton 
goods. There are also cotton factories in eastern France, where 
water power is used instead of steam power. Why should there be 
water power in that section ? 

Silk Manufacturing. — Because the climate and soil of the Rhone 
valley are adapted to the mulberry tree, and because coal mines are 
near by, this section is a great silk manufacturing region. Lyon is 
the centre, and St. Etienne and Paris are noted for this industry. 

The traveller in the Rhone valley sees grove after grove of mulberry 
trees, carefully cared for in order to supply an abundance of leaves for the 
silk-worm to eat in summer. 

The silk-worm moth, at the end of the caterpillar stage, weaves a 
cocoon about itself. The material of which the cocoon is composed is a 
thread, about two miles in length, which must be very carefully unwound. 
The single strand is such extremely fine silk that, in order to make a fibre 
strong enough for spinning and weaving, it is u.nited with several others. 

Since the worms are reared under cover, the silk industry may be 
carried on in any climate well adapted to the mulberry tree. It is pos- 
sible, therefore, to make raw silk in many parts of the world ; but the 
feeding of the worms and the transformation of the cocoons into silk for 
the market require much labor, care, and skill. On that account silk pro- 
duction is chiefly confined to those parts of the world where laborers will 
accept low wages, and where, owing to generations of such work, habits 
of watchfulness and care have been developed. China accordingly 
produces the greatest amount of raw silk ; but France, in the midst of the 
civilized world where the market for silk goods is greatest, also produces 
a large quantity and is the leading country for the manufacture of silk. 
Make as long a list of silk goods as you. can. 

Other Manufactures. — The extensive cultivation of grapes has 
been referred to. Much of the wine made from them is consumed 



316 



EUROPE 



at home, for in France even the day laborer drinks wine at his 
meals in place of or mixed with water. An enormous amount of 
wine is also shipped abroad. The manufacture of steel goods is 
important in some places, but to no such extent as in Great Britain. 
Other kinds of manufacturing are mentioned under the cities. 

Paris. — Paris, the capital of Prance, is the largest city on the 
continent of Europe and the third largest in the world. It numbers 
more than 2,500,000 inhabitants. 

Locatio7i (Fig. 338). — There is a definite reason for the exact 
site ; for an island in the Seine at that point made the river easier 




Fig. 343. 
A view looking over Paris, Avith the Seine in the centre of the j^icture. 



to bridge over, while at the same time it aided in defence. Aside 
from that, the Seine, having a slower current than the Rhone, and 
being less subject to overflows than the Loire, is more easily navi- 
gable than any other river in France. Its upper tributaries bring it 
into close touch with eastern France ; and, by the aid of canals, 
there is water connection with the Loire and Saone, and with the 
Rhine in Germany. Furthermore, Paris is situated on the main 
trade route from the Mediterranean to northern and central France, 
which follows the Rhone, the Saone, and the Seine. In addition, 
Paris is located in the midst of the most fertile portion of the country, 
and not very far from several other densely populated countries. For 
these several reasons it has always been the principal French city. 

Paris as an Art Centre. — Reference has already been made to 
the appreciation of grace and elegance characteristic of the French 



FRANCE 



317 



people. Napoleon and other rulers collected art treasures from 
various nations, and founded collections and schools which have made 
Paris famous. The superiority of this city in that respect is recog- 
nized in America by the large number of men and women who go 
there every year for the study of art. It is not strange, therefore, 
that Paris should be distinguished the world over for its beaut}^ as a 
city. The wide streets, the beautiful parks with their fountains and 
statues, and the fine public buildings and old roj^al palaces, are won- 
derfully attractive. Even the dwelling houses are in harmony, for it 
is required by law that new buildings must harmonize with those 
near by. Therefore one seldom sees an unattractive house in Paris. 

One of the old palaces, known as tJie Louvre, is the most noted art 
gallery in the world. It contains thousands of works of art, the most 
celebrated of all being the Venus of Milo. Among the paintings, one of 
the most famous is Raphael's Madonna and Child with St. John, copies of 
which are often seen in our country. 

Among the many interesting suburbs of Paris is Versailles, where 
there is another palace that was erected in the days of royalty. It is now 




Fig. 344. 
Fontainebleau, a beautiful wooded park south of Paris. 



mainly used as a museum, and scores of the large rooms are decorated 
with the finest of paintings. It is among such treasures that the students 
of art spend much of their time; and it is partly because of the beautiful 
surroundings that many foreigners reside permanently in Paris. 

Manufactures of Paris. — Like other great cities, Paris has too many 
industries to be specially identified with any particular one. Yet the 
superior taste of the Parisians has led them to pay especial attention to 
the manufacture of articles which combine utility with beauty, such as 
jewelry, furniture, gloves, fashionable shoes, etc. The Sevres porcelain is 
made in the suburbs of Paris, and both this and the Limoges ware, 
manufactured at Limoges, are celebrated for their beauty. 



318 EUBOPE 

Commerce of Paris. — Although so far iulaiid, Paris ships more 
goods by water than any other French city. The extensive canal 
connections have already been mentioned (p. 316). Vast sums have 
been spent in dredging the lower Seine, so that the depth of water 
between Rouen and Paris now exceeds ten feet. Small vessels can 
proceed directly to Paris, but larger ships transfer their goods at 
Havre and RouEisr. Besides this, the chief railways of France 
radiate in all directions from Paris (Fig. 338). All together, there- 
fore, Paris is the political, artistic, manufacturing, and commercial 
centre of France. 

Other Cities. — Havre, which is almost as busy a harbor as Mar- 
seille, has an extensive trade in coffee from Brazil, and in wheat 
and other materials from the United States. Another important 
port is Bordeaux, on the Garonne River, in the midst of a fertile 
grape-raising district. It is the chief port for the export of French 
wines. Locate the cities previously named and tell for what each 
is important. Note especially Lyon, next to Paris in size, and a 
little smaller than Baltimore. 

The third French city in size, and its leading seaport, is Mar- 
seille, which is almost as large as Lyon. The delta of the Rhone 
is too marshy for a city, and Marseille occupies the nearest point 
where there is a good harbor and where other conditions are favorable 
for a town. For many centuries the Rhone valley was the principal 
gateway from the Mediterranean to much of Europe. One route leads 
to the Seine valley, and thence to Paris (p. 316), northern France, 
and Belgium. Another enters Switzerland through Lake Geneva, 
out of which the Rhone flows ; and still a third route leads, through 
an opening in the mountains, into the Rhine valley and Germany. 

Commerce of France. — Notwithstanding the great amount of 
internal commerce on the numerous rivers, canals, and railways, 
and notwithstanding the extensive foreign trade, France is not 
a great maritime nation like the United Kingdom. In fact, her 
merchant marine is only one-tenth as large as that of the British 
Isles and three-fifths that of Norway. This is not entirely because 
of lack of acquaintance with the sea, for there are more French than 
British fishermen. The small number of good harbors, and the fre- 
quent and destructive wars during the last century, are among the 
reasons why France depends so largely upon other nations, as upon 
British and Norwegians, for vessels to carry her goods. Why is it 
safer for her to be thus dependent than for Great Britain ? 



FRANCE 819 

Colonies (Fig. 353). — On the other hand, France has been extensively 
engaged in exploration. Yori will remember that the French formerly- 
had extensive possessions in North America. Where were they ? Where 
are her present possessions in the New World ? 

In Asia, France holds a part of Indo-China and a very small bit of 
India ; and she has numerous islands in different portions of the world 
(Fig. 353). But her most important colonies are in Africa, as follows : 

(1) Algeria and Tunis, across the Mediterranean; (2) a vast area south of 
these countries, including a large part of the Sahara Desert, the Sudan, 
the upper Niger, and the country north of the Kongo Eiver ; and (3) the 
large island of Madagascar, east of southern Africa. 

Review Questions. — (1) Tell about the early inhabitants; (2) the influence 
of the boundary line for unity ; (3) the government ; (4) the physiography and 
climate. (5) What are the principal farm products? (6) Which of these have 
been found in Great Britain ? (7) Which have not been found there ? Why ? 
(8) Tell about the mineral products. (9) Give reasons for the extensive manu- 
facturing. (10) Tell about the woollen manufactures. (11) Cotton manufactures. 
(12) Tell about silk a-nd silk manufacturing. (13) What about other manufac- 
tures ? (14) Tell about Paris ; its size ; location ; artistic attractions ; manufactures ; 
commerce. (15) Tell about: (a) Havre, (b) Bordeaux, (c) Lyon. (16) What are 
the reasons for the location of Marseille? For what is it important? (17) What 
is there peculiar about the commerce of France? (18) Tell about the colonies. 

Suggestions. — (1) What is the name of the ]Dresent President of France ? 

(2) Give reasons why one river, as the Loire, might be much more subject to over- 
flows than another, as the Seine. (3) Examine Figure 306 to see if the glacier 
reached into any part of France during the Glacial Period. (4) Raise a silk-worm 
from the egg. (5) Examine a cocoon and see if you can unravel some of its thread. 
(6) Also unravel a piece of silk goods and examine the threads. (7) What influ- 
ence on the commerce of Marseille has the construction of railway tunnels through 
the Alps probably had ? (8) The construction of the Suez Canal ? Why ? (9) See 
if you can find any porcelain ware from Sevres or Limoges. (10) What changes 
might be brought about in your locality if the people there prided themselves 
greatly on the beauty of the sti'eets, houses, etc., as the Parisians do? (11) What 
pictures of fine statuary have you seen? (12) Find the names of some of the great 
French painters. (13) Read some stories from French history ; for example, the 
story of Roland in the days of Charlemagne, when the Pyrenees helped the French 
to keep the Saracens back ; the story of the French Revolution ; the story of Joan 
of Arc, etc. (14) Make an outline sketch of France, with the principal mountains, 
rivers, and cities. (15) On an outline map of the world, sketch in the French 
colonies with their names. 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 



V. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 

Map Qukstions. (Fig. 337.) — (1) What other cities in the world are in 
about tlie same latitude as Madrid? (2) Conapare the area of the S2:)anish penin- 
sula with that of France (Appendix, p. ii.). (8) Compare the populations (Ap- 
pendix, p. ii.). (4) Compare the directions taken by the rivers. (5) Judging 
from the maj?, what would you expect as to the number of good harbors? 
(6) What has been stated about the temperature and rainfall in Spain? (pp. 279 
and 281.) (7) What islands in the Mediterranean Sea belong to Spain? 

People and Government. — The people of this peninsula once had 
much the same rank among nations as is now held by the British. 




Fig. 345. 

The Alliambra, one of the last strongholds of the Moors, — Mohammedans who once 
conquered and occui^ied Spain. 

Name countries that they controlled. Mention some noted Spanish 
and Portuguese explorers. Now, however, both Spain and Portugal 
are classed among the weaker nations of Europe. 

The mountainous character of the peninsula has been one impor- 
tant cause of the decline of Spain and Portugal. The various races 
on the peninsula, cut off from one another by table-lands and moun- 
tain ranges, have never been fairly blended into one people. For 
centuries they were divided into small, independent kingdoms having 
different languages. Just before the discovery of America, however, 
most of these states were brought under one rule by the marriage of 
Ferdinand and Isabella ; and later even Portugal was joined to Spain. 

320 



SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 321 

Bat Portugal, which is partly separated from Spain by deep 
gorges and canyons, soon broke away. Also Andorra, a tiny 
country in the Pyrenees, was never fully conquered and is still 
independent ; and the union of some of the others has been by 
force rather than by choice. At present the parts of Spain are 
held together under a limited monarchy, and the same is true of 
Portugal. 

Physiography and Climate. — The key to many important facts 
about Spain and Portugal is found in the extensive elevation of the 
land. On the northern boundary stand the Pyrenees, continued on 
the west by the Cantabrian Mountains, while in the extreme south 
are the lofty Sierra Nevada ranges. Between these two systems is 
a broad plateau, from two to three thousand feet in elevation, with 
numerous short, broken mountain ranges. 

In the Ebro valley on the northeast and the Guadalquivir (mean- 
ing Great River) valley on the southwest there are lowlands. Point 
to these rivers on the map. The only other extensive lowland is a 
narrow strip near the sea, which reaches most of the distance around 
the peninsula. A very large proportion of the surface, therefore, is 
made up of plateaus and mountains. 

This elevated surface has been instrumental, in the first place, in 
preventing Spain from becoming a great thoroughfare for the trans- 
portation of goods. The position of the peninsula, between the two 
busiest seas of the world, and between Africa and central Europe, 
suggests that it might be a valuable route for commerce. But the 
highlands separate, rather than unite, these regions. 

The highlands have an important influence also on the climate. 
Owing to the elevation the interior has cold winters, though the 
summers are hot ; and because of the fringe of mountains, the rain- 
fall is light everywhere except near the northwestern coast, where 
the vapor is condensed in rising over the slopes (Fig. 310). The 
southern portion of Spain, like southern California, being in the 
horse latitudes (p. 217), is so arid that agriculture without irrigation 
is impossible. 

There are several other effects produced by the highlands. In the first 
place, the rivers are unnavigable ; for in descending from the arid plateau 
to the coastal plains their courses are rapid and their volume slight. Be- 
sides that, most of them have cut such deep, narrow valleys, like that of 
our Colorado Canyon, that they are not only useless for irrigation but are 
even a great hindrance to communication. The Guadalquivir, which has 



322 



EUBOPE 



a wide valley and wMch vessels are able to ascend as far as Seville, is 
the principal exception. 

Since the interior is so arid and rugged, it must have little timber, little 
agriculture, few people, and few roads, railways, and canals. With one or 
two exceptions, therefore, the chief towns are to be found along the coast. 

Agriculture and Grazing. — In one respect the elevation of the 
land is an advantage because it insures great variety of climate, and 
hence many kinds of farm products. What countries of South 
America does this condition call to mind ? 

We may expect grazing in the uplands and among the mountains, 
as in similar rugged and arid regions elsewhere. Name some of 

them. Spain is noted for 
the excellent grade of its 
sheep and mules. There 
are also many cattle, espe- 
cially in the rainy north- 
west ; but the fact that so 
much of the country is 
arid explains why there 
are many more sheep and 
goats than cattle. The 
sheep often wander about 
in flocks of ten thousand 
under the care of a number of shepherds and their dogs. In sum- 
mer they feed among the mountains, but in winter they are driven 
clown to the more protected lowlands for shelter. 

Wheat is the most common crop in Spain, since it requires com- 
paratively little rain; but there is far less than might be, since so 
many of the Spaniards lack energy and enterprise. 

In many of the valleys where irrigation is possible, and especially on 
the lowlands along the coast, the farmers are more progressive and pros- 
perous. Barley, rye, and corn are raised in addition to wheat, and these 
are among the staple foods of the people. Quantities of grapes are also 
grown in Spain and Portugal ; and in the southern part of the peninsula 
the bark of the cork oak is a source of income to both countries. 

The arid southeastern coast is wonderfully productive. One reason is 
the warm climate, due to the influence of the Mediterranean ; another is 
the number of mountain streams, which, though useless for navigation, are 
extremely valuable for irrigation. Some of the products of this section, 
besides wheat and corn, are cotton, grapes, olives, figs, dates, oranges, 
lemons, and rice. Several crops of some products may be raised in a year. 




Fig. 346. 
A sheep pasture at the Convent of Palos in Spain. 



SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 323 

Mining. — Spain is remarkably rich in minerals. Lead and silver 
are mined in the upper valley of the Quadalquivir, and along the 
southeastern coast. Some distance northeast of Seville a large 
quantity of quicksilver, or mercury, is obtained ; and northwest of 
Seville, and in southern Portugal, are some noted copper mines. 
Coal and iron ore are found in several parts of the peninsula, but the 
largest output of each occurs on the northern slope of the Cantabrian 
Mountains. Spain produces more quicksilver than any other coun- 
try, and is exceeded only by the United States in the output of 
copper and lead. 




Fig. 347. 
A wooden- wheeled ox cart, to illustrate the backwardness of the Spaniards. 

Here, however, as in other industries, the character of the people pre- 
vents proper development of the re'som-ces. Much of the benefit from the 
mines is due to the capital and enterprise of foreigners ; the English and 
French are in control of the copper mines, and the Rothschilds own the 
quicksilver. 

Manufacturing. — From what has been said above, it is apparent that 
manufacturing cannot flourish. This fact is all the more evident when we 
consider that more than two-thirds of the Spaniards, and three-fourths of 
the Portuguese, cannot read. Thus, although they have coal beds, much 
of their iron ore, instead of being smelted at home, is shipped to the coal 
fields of Swansea in Wales to be smelted. In some places, however, as 
will be seen in our study of the cities, there is manufacturing of certain 
kinds. 

Principal Cities of Spain. — Madrid, the metropolis and capital 
of Spain, is nearly as large as Baltimore ; but unlike most other large 
cities so far studied, it is not an important manufacturing centre. 
Why not ? The explanation of its size |is found in its central loca- 
tion, and the fact that it is the seat of government. In crossing the 
peninsula to connect the coastal cities, all the principal railway lines 



324 



EUROPE 



converge at this point, and thus Madrid has become the intellectual 
and political centre of the country. 

To some|extent, Madrid, with its wide streets, magnificent royal palace, 
and one of the finest art galleries in the world, recalls the attractions 

of Paris. iSBut one of its most 



frequented places is an enor- 
mous building, which seats 
many thousands aud which is 
used for bull fighting. In its 
indulgence in this brutal 
sport the city bears no resem- 
blance to Paris ; nor is there 
any resemblance in its sur- 
roundings. From the streets 
of Madrid one looks across the 
country for miles and miles, 
seeing not a tree nor fence 
nor hoi;se ; only the weeds 
and scattered vegetation of an 
arid waste. 




Fig. 348. 
A Spanish bull fight. 



The city next in importance upon the highlands of Spain is 
GrAjSTADA, the last stronghold of the Moors. To this point among 
the mountains, at the intersection of the best routes of travel from 
east to west, and from north to south, these people withdrew. Here 
they maintained themselves for two hundred years and developed 
a city of four hundred thousand population. At present, Granada 
contains less than one-fourth as many inhabitants, and its principal 
attraction is the Moorish palace, or Alhambra (Fig. 345), one of the 
finest examples of Moorish architecture in existence. 

On the lowlands west of Granada are Seville and Cadiz, both flour- 
ishing cities at the time when vast stores of plmider were being brought 
from the Spanish colonies in the ISTew World. Cadiz is now a fortified 
naval harbor; and Seville is recovering a degree of her former commer- 
cial importance. One tobacco factory in Seville employs about five thou- 
sand women in making cigars and cigarettes. 

Grihraltar, a steep hill, with bold cliffs rising on nearly all sides, 
and with a town at its base, has belonged to England since 1704. 
This rock hill (Fig. 349) is, perhaps, the strongest fortification in 
the world, and guards the entrance to the Mediterranean. Why 
should the English especially want such a stronghold there ? 



SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 



325 



Malaga grapes serve to remind us of the coastal city by that name, and 
of the products about it. It has one of the warmest climates in Europe. 



r 






" — " 




— _-.. 




''- 


i; 




\ 
















'^^^r^ 






— r- 




d 


^^■^^^1 


M| 






HH 






gimi 


1 


1 



Fig. 349. 

The rock of Gibraltar from the Spanish coast, showing the narrow neck of land which 
connects it with the mainland. 



Valencia and Barcelona are the leading seaports of Spain. 
The region about the former is a beautiful garden, much like south- 
ern California, which it resembles also in products. Name some of 
the products. In addition, rice is grown on the lowlands near the 
coast. Barcelona, the second Spanish city in size, is the principal 
seaport and an important textile manufacturing centre as well. 

On the whole Spain is poorly provided with harbors ; and while 
the majority of the people dwell near the coast, and many engage in 
fishing, they take a small share in international commerce. 




Fig. 350. 
The harbor and city of Oporto. Describe the situation of the city. 

Colonies of Spain. — The only remnants now left to Spain of her once 
magnificent foreign possessions are for the most part in Africa. These 



326 EUROPE 

include a few small settlements on the coast of Morocco ; a portion of the 
western coast of Sahara, having little value ; and a few small islands in 
the Gulf of Guinea. The Canary Islands, west of the northern coast of 
Africa, and the Balearic Isles in the Mediterranean also belong to Spain. 

Principal Cities and Colonies of Portugal. — Lisbon and Oporto 
are the chief cities of Portugal. The former, the capital and 
metropolis, lying on a broad bay where the Tagus River enters the 
sea, has one of the finest harbors in existence. With its white 
houses, its cathedrals and palaces — all partly buried" in trees on 
the hillsides surrounding the harbor — it vies in beauty with the 
most attractive cities in the world. 

The misfortunes of Lisbon have been many. It has suffered from 
sieges, plagues, and earthquakes. The most terrible catastrophe happened 
in 1755, when an earthquake, followed by fire, destroyed most of the 
houses and a large part of the population. 

Oporto gives the name to Port wine. The lower part of the Douro 
valley is one of the richest wine districts in Europe, and Oporto, like 
Bordeaux, is an important point for its export. 

Portugal, like Spain, has lost much of her foreign territory. The 
Azores Islands, far to the west in the Atlantic, and the Madeira Islands, 
to the southwest, are a part of the kingdom. The Cape Verde Islands, a 
volcanic group off the coast of Africa, are dependencies. Portugal also has 
large possessions on the mainland of Africa and smaller ones in Asia. 

Review Questions. — (1) Tell about the people and government of Spain 
and Portugal. (2) Describe the highlands of the peninsula. (3) Mention 
several consequences of this elevated condition of the land. (4) Tell about agri- 
culture and grazing. (5) Tell about the mining. (6) What can you say about 
manufacturing? (7) Give the main facts about the following cities : (a) Madrid, 
(?;) Granada, (c) Seville, (rf)' Cadiz, (e) Malaga, (/) Valencia, {g) Barcelona. 
(8) For what is Gibraltar noted? (9) What about the colonies of Spain ? (10) Tell 
about (a) Lisbon, (&) Oporto. (11) What about the colonies of Portugal? 
(12) Name and locate the principal cities of Spain and Portugal. 

Suggestions. — (1) About what portion of the boundary line between Spain 
and Portugal is formed by rivers ? (2) What must be the influence of railways 
upon the old-fashioned methods of farming in the interior? (3) Recall the 
Spaniards' treatment of the Incas in South America. (4) Look in the report of 
the Twelfth Census to see waht per cent of our population cannot I'ead. (5) Find 
out about some events in our recent war with Spain. (6) Learn what is meant 
by the Pillars of Hercules. (7) Find other pictures of Moorish architecture. 
(8) Read Washington Irving's " The Alhambra." (9) Make a sketch of the 
Spanish peninsula, including the principal rivers and cities. 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 




BEX 



CHAMOIS 

The M.N.Co-.Buffalo. 




REINDEER 



WOLF 



Fig. 351. 

Some of the few wild animals of Europe. Domestic animals are abundant, includ- 
ing the reindeer of the tundras. Even the bear is tamed and exhibited. Have 
you ever seen one of these European bears performing on the street ? 




Fig. 352. 

Map Questions : Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. — (1) The Scandinavian peninsula 
is the largest in Europe. What is its length in degrees? In miles? (2) How does its 
western coast remind you of the western coast of Scotland and Ireland? (3) What evi- 
dences do you see of glacial action ? Where ? (4) What do you observe about the rivers 




of Sweden? (5) Which of these three countries has the largest population ? (6) How does 
it compare with New York State in area and population ? With your own state ? (See 
Appendix, pp. ii and iii.) (7) Make the same comparison for the smallest of the three coun- 
tries. (8) What points in North America are in about the same latitude as Christiania and 
Stockholm ? (9) On Figure 207 find how near to Scandinavia the Gulf Stream drift reaches. 



f 



VI. NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 

(For Map Questions, see map, Fig. 352.) 



People. — The people of these three countries have long been 
more or less united, for the well-settled southern portions of Nor- 
way and Sweden are not separated by any natural barrier, while 
only a narrow, shallow sea separates Scandinavia from Denmark. 
Being descended from a common stock, and at times having a single 
government, they have many interests in common. The written 
language of the Norwegians and Danes is still the same, and Nor- 
way and Sweden are united under one king, although they have 
separate local government. Denmark is now independent, as it has 
always been, and, like Norway and Sweden, is a limited monarchy. 
Norway and Sweden were once a part of Denmark. 

These people have been closely connected with our own history, for 
they made some of the early invasions and settlements in Great Britain, 
and are thereby to be numbered among our ancestors. Their daring sea- 
men reached Greenland, by way of Iceland, and discovered America nearly 
five hundred years before Columbus approached its shores. In the present 
century they have migrated to the United States by thousands, and have 
chosen homes in many states, but particularly in Minnesota, Illinois, and 
Wisconsin. 

Physiography and Climate. — There are only about one-fourth as 
many inhabitants in these three countries together as there are in 
the British Isles ; yet in spite of frequent European wars, they have 
preserved their independence through many centuries. This has 
been due in part to their peculiar position. The only land approach 
to Scandinavia is by way of Lapland in Russia, which is so far north 
that it is very cold. Thus the peninsula is almost as isolated from 
other nations as is Great Britain. 

Denmark, on the other hand, is partly connected with Germany. 
However, the most important parts of Denmark, the islands, are 
completely separated by water. These islands and the Danish penin- 
sula (Eig. 374) are the higher portions of a lowland that were 
left projecting above the water when sinking of the land changed 

327 



328 



EUBOPE 



the Baltic valley to a shallow sea (p. 277). Standmg at the 
entrance to the Baltic, they guard the approaches to this inland sea, 
and naturally Germany, Russia, and other nations have long coveted 

them. But as neither of 
the Great Powers was will- 
ing that one of the others 
should hold them, little 
Denmark has been allowed 
to continue its independent 
existence. 

The rugged surface and 
severe climate of Scandinavia 
have also served as a protec- 
tion against invaders. From 
its southern to its northern 
end the peninsula is moun- 
tainous. It is an ancient 
mountain land (p. 275), much 
worn, and cut by deep stream 
valleys. While some peaks 
reach an elevation of six to 
eight thousand feet, most of 
them are lower and of so 
nearly the same height that 
the upland resembles a pla- 
teau when viewed across the 
mountain crests. The boun- 
dary between Norway and 
Sweden follows the divide between the east and west flowing streams; 
and since the mountains descend steeply into the ocean on the western 
side, those streams which flow toward the west are the shorter. Therefore, 
in all but the southern part, Norway is a narrow, mountainous region 
crossed by short streams flowing in deep, steep-sided valleys (Fig. 354). 

Agricultural Districts. — The mountainous surface and cold cli- 
mate are unfavorable to agriculture, although the warm ocean waters 
(p. 279) exert an enormous influence here, as in the British Isles. 
In rising over the mountains, the westerly winds supply abundant 
rain and snow, and it is the later which causes the numerous glaciers. 

Since the slope on the eastern side is much the longer, Sweden 
has extensive lowlands throughout its length. But these lowlands 
are so far north, and so protected from the influence of the sea, that 
in all but the southern part agriculture is of little importance. 




Fig. 354. 

A Norwegian fjord with steep cliffs rising from the 
very water's edge. 



NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 



329 



Although Denmark is free from mountains, the northern and 
western portion of the Danish peninsula (called Jutland) is a sandy 
Avaste, so that only the islands and the southeastern part of the 
peninsula are very productive. 

In these three countries, therefore, there is a comparatively small 
area that is valuable for agriculture, and the sections lie near 
together ; namely, in southern Norway and Sweden and in eastern 
Denmark. 

Industries and Cities of Norway. — Since less than four thou- 
sand (out of a total of one hundred and twenty-five thousand) 
square miles in Norway have a soil and climate adapted to agricul- 
ture or pasturage, the amount of stock and grain produced is small. 
Therefore, much meat, flour, and other food must be imported. 




Fig. 355. 
Bergeu, Norway, with its deep, narrow fjord harbor. 

Also, while there are some silver and copper mines, coal is entirely 
lacking, because the rocks were formed before the Coal Period. 
Manufacturing, therefore, is little developed. Even the fine water 
power is little used, because raw products for manufacturing are 
not abundant. 

On what, then, do the two million inhabitants depend for a liv- 
ing ? They have two valuable resources, — lumber and fish. More 
than one-fifth of the country is forest-covered — pines being most 
common — and lumber, wooden goods, and paper are the most 
important exports. As in Maine, the rapidly flowing rivers are of 
use in moving the logs from the forest, and also in supplying power 
for the sawmills and planing mills. 



330 



EUROPE 



Fish abound on the shallow banks along the irregular western 
coast, especially codfish in the neighborhood of the far northern 
Lofoden Islands. The North Sea with its many fish is also close at 
hand, and the Arctic Ocean with its seals and whales. Over a hun- 
dred thousand Norwegians are engaged in the fishing industry. 
Along the fjords every family owns a boat, and knows how to make 
as well as use one. While the men are at sea the women work the 
small farms or garden patches. 

The abundance of lumber and the love for the sea, developed 
through centuries of experience in navigating the deep fjords and 
in fishing, have given rise to a third great industry, that of carrying 
goods for other nations. The timber for wooden vessels is easily 




Fig. 35G. 

North Cape, the northern point in Norway. The summer sun is shining here at midnight, 
because the cape is within the Arctic Circle. 



supplied, and this small Norwegian nation has at present a greater 
number of freight vessels than any other European country except- 
ing the British Isles. 

These facts help to explain why the Norwegian towns are found 
along the coast. Indeed, it is rare to find even a village in the 
interior. The two principal cities are Christiania, the capital and 
largest city, and Bergen (Fig. 355). The former is situated at the 
head of a long, narrow, sunken valley, or fjord, which makes an 
excellent harbor, and the city is the principal port and distributing 
centre for southern Norway. Bergen is the important fishing port, 
as Aberdeen is in Scotland and Gloucester in Massachusetts. 



NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 



331 




Fig. 357. 

Hammerfest, Norway, far within the Arctic Circle. 
This town is the nearest to the pole of any in the 
world excepting Upernivik in Greenland, where all 
but a few of the inhabitants are Eskimos. 



Scenery on the Western Coast. — As in the British Isles and north- 
eastern North America, the sinking of the Scandinavian peninsula has 
caused the sea to enter the river valleys, forming many bays, peninsulas, 
and islands. It is estimated 
that there are fully ten thou- 
sand islands along the coast 
of Norway. Owing to the fact 
that, before the sinking took 
place, the river valleys were 
deeply cut in hard rock, the 
bays are usually long, narrow, 
and deep fjords (Fig. 354). 

Some of the fjords extend 
fully ninety miles inland, 
and swollen streams from the 
mountains frequently plunge, 
for a fall of a thousand feet 
or more, over the vertical cliffs which bound the fjords. The cliffs are 
often only barren rock ; but here and there, where the slopes are not too 
steep, green forests cover the surface ; glaciers are frequently in sight ; 
and occasionally, upon a level patch, a hamlet of fishermen's homes 
(Fig. 309) is seen. These hamlets are usually upon the deltas of small 
streams and are connected with the outer world, and with other villages, 
by no road or pathway excepting the waters of the fjord. So isolated are 
these hamlets that each man must learn to do many things, — farm, fish, 
tan his leather, make his shoes, build his boat, his house, etc. 

Hundreds of visitors from all parts of the world travel by steamer 
along this coast every summer to enjoy the beautiful scenery. Another 
attraction is the sight of the sun at midnight (Fig. 356). At Bergen, 
Christiania, and Stockholm, which are in nearly the same latitude, the 
shortest night is less than six hours ; at Trondhjem it is about four ; and 
at Hammerfest (Fig. 357), far within the Arctic Circle and near North 
Cape (Fig. 356), the sun does not set from May 13 to July 29. 

Industries and Cities of Sweden. — Agriculture is the leading 
industry of Sweden, for fertile soil, swept by the glacier (Fig, 306) 
from the northern and western highlands, has been scattered over 
the lower lands. In consequence, the southern part of the country 
presents mucli the same appearance as New England. Oats are 
raised in most abundance, but rye, barley, wheat, and potatoes are 
also produced. One reason why these products can mature here is 
the absence of cool summer winds from the ocean; another is the 
great length of the summer days in this far northern latitude. JNluch 
live stock is also raised, and butter is exported to Great Britain. 

However, nearly one-half the area of Sweden is covered with 



332 



EUROPE 



forest, and lumber is by far the greatest article of export, as in 
Norway. Indeed, these two countries supply much of the lumber 
needed in western Europe. Their wood is especially valued because 
of its hardness and durability — qualities that are due to the closeness 
of the annual rings caused by the shortness of the summer season. 

Mining is the third important industry. There are silver, lead, 
zinc, and copper mines. Some coal is found in the southern end, and 
the country has long been noted for its excellent iron ore. But since 
the principal iron mines are located far from the coal, there is little 
iron manufacturing in Sweden. However, as in portions of the Lake 
Superior district of the United States, some of the iron ore is smelted 




Fig. 358. 
The royal palace at Stockholm. 



by the use of charcoal, and some by coal mined in Sweden or brought 
from other countries. The Swedish iron is of such excellent quality 
that it is eagerly sought where the highest grade of steel tools is 
manufactured, as in Sheffield, England. 

Sweden possesses excellent water power for various kinds of 
manufacturing, and in recent years the numerous rivers have begun 
to be utilized, so that manufacturing is making rapid progress there. 

The two principal cities — Stockholm, the capital, and Gothex- 
BUEG — are on the coast ; but there are other small seaports and 
inland mining towns. Stockholm is the residence of the king of the 
united countries, who is also required to spend a part of each year 
in Norway. The situation of this city is one of marvellous beauty, 
on an excellent harbor ; but unfortunately it is blocked with ice for 
four months each year. Owing to the numerous lakes and to canals, 



NOB WAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 



333 



it is connected by water, as well as by rail, with the chief points in 
a populous region, and is therefore the principal distributing centre 
for imports. Gothenburg, the chief centre for exports, possesses 
the important advantage that its harbor is seldom frozen over. It 
is connected with Stockholm by railway as well as by lake and canal. 
Much of the distance between these two cities is occupied by lakes. 

The principal foreign trade of both Norway and Sweden is with Great 
Britain. Give reasons for this. What must be the main articles of import 
and export ? Next to Great Britain comes Germany. Can you suggest 
reasons for this ? 

Industries and Cities of Denmark. — There is neither coal nor 
metal in the rocks of Denmark, so that there is no mining in the 
country. The only mineral product of value is clay, well suited to 
the manufacture of porcelain, which is an important industry. As 
in Ireland, the lack of coal for fuel is partially met by peat from the 
bogs and swamps of the northern and western parts. 

The fact that butter constitutes one-half the exports of Denmark 
throws much light upon the principal occupation of the people. 
Farming, especially dairying, is the chief industry ; and in this small 
country there are a million 
and a half dairy cows and 
nearly as many sheep, be- 
sides many horses, goats, 
and pigs. The laws of the 
nation discourage large 
farms, so that each farmer, 
by carefully cultivating a 
small patch of land, as in 
Belgium, obtains the most 
that it can yield. 

The nearness to good 
fishing banks has naturally 
made fishing important ; and this, together with the influence of 
island life, has created such a love for the sea that large numbers 
of Danes serve as sailors on British and other foreign vessels. 

As in the case of Norway and Sweden, the principal foreign trade 
of Denmark is with Great Britain. Why ? What goods can well 
be exchanged ? One might therefore expect an important seaport 
on the western coast ; but that coast is so low, and so shut in by 







-f 


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m 




i|'''-' s " '/ 


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mp. 


w^ 


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Fig. 359. 
A view in Copenhagen. 



334 EUROPE 

sand bars, that good harbors are hicking. In fact, the only harbor 
in all Denmark that admits large vessels is Copenhagen (merchants' 
harbor) on Seeland Island. Since this point gu'ards the entrance 
to the Baltic Sea, there is a double reason why Copenhagen is the 
principal city of Denmark. The fact that it is the capital also 
increases its importance. It approaches Buffalo in size. 

Colonies of Denmark. — The Danes, even more than the Norwegians, 
have been daring seamen and explorers of foreign lands. Although some 
of their possessions have been lost, Greenland and the Faroe Islands are 
still Danish colonies, and Iceland is a Danish dependency. In the Faroes, 
consisting of a score of small islands north of Scotland, the principal prod- 
ucts are sheep and fish. Why might you expect these two particularly ? 

Iceland, which is larger than Ireland, and more than twice the size 
of Denmark, is an island of volcanic origin. Over a hundred volcanoes 
are found there, twenty-five of which have been in eruption during his- 
toric times. Mt. Hecla is one of the most noted of these. Destructive 
earthquakes are common, and there are also geysers similar to those found 
in our Yellowstone National Park. The interior is a desert plateau, for 
the most part covered with snoAv, and hence uninhabited. Near the sea, 
however, there is some good pasture land, and the people are principally 
engaged in raising cattle and sheep. Fishing is important, and down 
from the eider duck is a valuable product. 

Keview Questions. — (1) What about the people of these three countries? 

(2) Describe briefly the surface of Norway; of Sweden; of Denmark. (3) Where 
are tlie principal farming sections? (4) Tell about agriculture in Norway. 
(5) Why is there little manufacturing there? (6) What is the principal export? 
Why? (7) What about fishing? (8) Give reasons for the large merchant fleet 
of Norway. (9) Tell about the cities of Norway. (10) Describe the scenery on 
the western coast. (11) Tell about Sweden : principal industry; forests; mining; 
manufacturing; principal cities. (12) What are the industries in Denmark? 
(13) Tell about Copenhagen. (14) Tell about the foreign territory of Denmark. 
(15) What are tlie important facts about Iceland ? (16) Give reasons why Norway, 
Sweden, and Denmark have their principal foreign trade with the British Isles. 

Suggestions. — (1) Why should the telephone prove of special importance 
among the fishing towns scattered along the coast of Norway? (2) By use of a 
globe explain why the sun does not set for weeks at a time at Hammerfest- 

(3) Why is the whale and seal fishing important as a means of furnishing light 
during the long night of this northern land? (4) What do you know about the 
life of the Laplanders ? (5) Why should Bergen be one of the rainiest cities of 
Europe ? (6) Give reasons why harbors on the Baltic should be blocked by ice 
much oftener than those on the western coast of Norway. (7) Can you give a 
reason why so many matches should be made in Sweden ? (8) Give all the rea- 
sons you can to explain why the Norsemen should have become such daring navi- 
gators. (9) Hans Christian Andersen was a native of Denmark. What stories 
do you know that were written by him? (10) Read and retell stories of the 
Norse gods in old-time mythology. 



VII. RUSSIA 

Map Questions (Fig. 352). — (1) About how much of Europe is induded 
in Russia? (2) What part of the distance from pole to equator is inchided? 
(3) AVhat does this suggest concerning temperature and rainfall? (4) How much 
of the boundary of Russia is sea coast? (5) Name the seas which border it. 
(6) Name the mountains on or near the border. (7) What portion of Russia is 
occupied by plains? (Fig. 30-i.) (8) In what directions do the large rivers flow? 
JSTame the three longest. (9) What peculiar fact do you notice about the Caspian 
Sea? (10) Find Poland, Finland, and Lapland. (11) What parts of Asia are in 
the Russian Empire ? (Fig. 403.) 

Size and Position. — Russia in Europe is larger than all the other 
European countries together ; and the Russian Empire, which 
includes Siberia and other lands in Asia, occupies about one-sixth of 
all the land upon the globe. The empire extends from the Baltic 
on the west to the Pacific on the east, and within its borders is 
included a great variety of climate. What countries in North and 
South America approach it in area ? In variety of climate ? 

In spite of its vast extent, the development of Russia is greatly 
liindered by the lack of good harbors. In this respect it contrasts 
strongly with the United States. To be sure, the sea forms a large 
portion of the Russian boundary ; but Archangel, the principal 
port on the White Sea, is ice-bound for nine months, and the Baltic 
ports for four or five months each year. Besides this, the entrances 
to the Baltic and Black seas are guarded by foreign nations. Why 
are the Caspian ports of little use ? 

Physiography. — Most of the large rivers in western Europe have 
their sources in the mountains. Give examples (Fig. 304). It is 
not so, however, in Russia, where the central divide is a low, hilly 
region less than twelve hundred feet above sea level at its highest 
point. Aside from the mountains along the border this is the 
highest part of Russia. How does it compare in a,ltitude with the 
highest point in flat Holland? (p. 302). 

From what has been said, it is evident that most of Russia is 
a remarkably level plain (Fig. 304). Since several of the rivers 
are very long, what must be true as to the velocity of their currents ? 

335 



336 



EUROPE 




Fig. 360. 

A Laplander's hut. The home of the Laplander is in 

northern Scandinavia and northwestern Russia. 



What must follow as to their value for navigation ? What about 

the ease of canal construction ? 

In southeastern Russia, on the other hand, are the lofty Caucasus 

Mguntains (Fig. 307), in which one of the peaks, the extinct volcano 

Mt. Elbruz, is the highest 
mountain in Europe. But, 
at the very base of these 
mountains bordering the 
Caspian Sea are broad 
plains which in places are 
even lower than the level 
of the sea. 

The Caspian Sea, into 
which the longest river of 
Europe pours its floods, is the 
largest inland sea in the 
world. In spite of the enor- 
mous volume of water which 
enters these inland seas, the 
evaporation in that dry cli- 
mate has caused them so to shrink in size that neither the Caspian nor 
the Aral Sea (Fig. 403) is now connected with the ocean. The surface 
of the Caspian is eighty-five feet below sea level, and by evaporation it is 
steadily growing smaller and Salter, leaving broad, salt-covered plains 
round about it. 

Climate. — The influence of distance from the ocean upon tem- 
perature and rainfall is well illustrated in Russia. Moscow is in the 
same latitude as Edinburgh ; but while at Edinburgh the average 
temperature for January is 37°, at Moscow it is nearly 25° colder • 
Notice (Fig. 268) which summer isotherms pass nearest to these 
two cities. It was the severity of the Russian winter that caused 
Napoleon Bonaparte to lose nearly the whole of a great army when 
he was invading that country in 1812. What effect must this cold 
have upon navigation of the rivers ? 

Extreme drought, as well as extremes of temperature, are found 
in parts of eastern Russia. Although the rain-bearing winds meet 
with no barrier in sweeping over such level land, they nevertheless 
deposit so much moisture on the countries of western Europe that no 
part of Russia has heavy rainfall ; and the eastern part averages less 
than twenty inches per year (Fig. 310). Since this amount is barely 
sufficient for agriculture, the crops suffer, and famines follow in 



EUSSIA 



337 



especially dry seasons. Soutlieastern Russia is altogether too arid 
for farming, being not only far from the ocean, but so far south that 
it is not greatly influenced by the prevailing westerlies. 

People and Government. — The plains of Russia have offered no 
better barrier to the inroads of invaders than to the winds. We 
therefore find many kinds of people 
united under Russian rule. Most 
of these belong to the white race, 
but to a different division from 
the German and British peoples. 
The Russians are /Slavs, while the 
inhabitants of Germany, Scandi- 
navia, and the British Isles are of 
the Teutonic division. But Russia 
also contains many Jews, Teutons, 
and other people, including the 
Lapps (Figs. 360 and 361) who are 
classed with the Mongolian race. 
All together not less than forty lan- 
guages are spoken within the realm. 




Fig. 361. 
A Lapp boy from Laplaud iu Russia. 



In former centuries, while other 
parts of Europe were advancing in 
civilization, Russia was being raided 
by outsiders and its progress retarded 
by conquest. The country was so 

remote from western Europe that it felt little influence from the growing- 
civilization of the west. Moreover, approach by water was then difficult, 
because formerly the only Russian sea-coast was on the Arctic. It was 
not until the time of Peter the Great (1682-1725) that Russia began to 
learn the lessons of civilization from other European nations. 

These facts help to explain why Russia is so slightly advanced in some 
directions. While the common people of other European nations were 
demanding greater liberty, and were constantly acquiring education, the 
mass of the Russians were kept in subjection and ignorance. They were 
mere serfs, who were little better than slaves to their lords, the nobles. 
Although the serfs were liberated in the middle of the last century, almost 
no attempt has been made to educate the masses, and at present they 
possess little liberty. 

The emperor, or Czar, is an absolute monarch " whose will alone 
is law." On purely local matters, however, the peasants have a 
voice. Those of a locality meet in a Mir, or assembly, to discuss 



338 



EUROPE 



5 




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Fig. 362. 

A fisherman's house in Finland. Fishing is a very- 
important industry in Russian waters ; and there is 
a great demand for fish, owing to the number of 
fast days ivept by tlie Greek Church, to which tlie 
majority of Russians belong. 



matters of common interest and to elect officers from their number, 
somewhat as is done in town-meetings in the United States. Natu- 
rall3% in this day of popular government, many of the people are dis- 
satisfied, and it is on account of this discontent that attempts are 

made to assassinate the 
Czar. The attack is 
against the form of govern- 
ment, rather than against 
the Czar, who personally 
is usually an estimable 
man. 

Lumbering. — Nearly a 
third of European Russia 
is forest-covered, and the 
timber resources, as in Nor- 
way (p. 332), are among 
the greatest of the country. 
This forest supplies not 
only lumber, but pulp for 
paper and bark for tan- 
ning. Many fur-bearing animals live in the forest, as was formerly 
the case in other parts of Europe. 

Farming and Grazing. — Both in the forest region and on the open 
plains to the south, there is extensive agriculture. Fully nine-tenths 
of the people are supported by farming, which makes Russia pri- 
marily an agricultural country. 

The most important crops are the grains, especially rye, wheat, 
barley, and oats. Russia ranks next to the United States among 
grain-producing countries, and wheat is one of its principal exports. 
Another important crop is hay ; and potatoes, sugar beets, and flax 
are extensively raised in the cool temperate climate. In southern 
Russia the warm climate permits the culture of grapes, tobacco, 
and corn ; and south of the Caucasus even olives and cotton are 
produced. 

On the grazing lands of the arid steppes, which resemble our west- 
ern plains, many sheep, cattle, and horses are raised. The nomadic 
herdsmen, such as the Cossacks, still retain many of the customs of 
the shepherds and herders of Bible times, who dwelt farther south 
in Asia. 

Mineral Wealth. — Some parts of Russia contain mineral deposits 



RUSSIA 339 

of great value. In the Ural Mountains, for example, are gold, sil- 
ver, copper, platinum, and other metals, besides some precious stones 
and graphite, or " black lead," which is used in lead pencils. 

Coal and iron are mined in several parts of Russia (Fig. 305), 
and each year the amount is increasing. As in Great Britain, some 
of the iron ore is so near coal and limestone that it is easily 
smelted. 

Russia ranks next to the United States in the production of petroleum. 
This oil is found in several places, especially at Baku on the Caspian. 
But since its quality is not as good as that of the United States, it is less 
useful for kerosene. Large quantities are therefore cousumed as fuel for 
steamers on the Caspian and Volga ; and, as in southern California, the 
oil is also used in locomotives. 

Manufacturing. — Although numerous factories have recently been 
established in Russia, about six-sevenths of the manufacturing population 
carry on the work by hand in their own homes. What a contrast to the 
United States and to Great Britain ! 

Distilling and brewing are the principal forms of manufacturing not 
done in the homes ; then come cotton manufacturing and sugar refining, 
while flour mills, woollen and linen factories, and iron works follow. 
What raw prodiicts of Eussia encourage these industries ? 

PEiisrciPAL Cities and their Commerce 

Moscow and Nijni Novgorod. — The former isolation of Russia 
from other countries is illustrated by the fact that the principal 
cities were for a long time situated far in the interior. For example, 
Moscow, the second city in size and one of the chief manufacturing 
centres, and once the capital of the empire, is located almost in the 
centre of the realm, as Madrid is in Spain. The point was well 
chosen, because rivers, which canals could easily connect, diverge 
from this section in all directions. By the introduction of railways 
the advantage of this location was so increased that Moscow is now 
the great railway centre of Russia, as Madrid is of Spain, and for the 
same reason. State this reason (p. 323). But the land about the 
city, unlike that around Madrid, is fertile and densely populated, 

Not only is Moscow adorned with royal palaces and government 
buildings, but it is the holy city of Russia, and therefore has numerous 
convents and churches (Fig. 363). The University of Moscow, the largest 
in the empire, is attended by about four thousand students. 

East of Moscow, on the Volga River, is Nijni Novgorod, renowned 
for its annual fairs. A great trade centre is needed somewhere in this 



uo 



EUROPE 




region for the exchange of Asiatic and of Eussian products, and this 
city is suitable for the purpose because of its superior water connections. 

Point them out (Map, Fig. 
315). Tlie fairs, held in 
August and September, are 
the greatest in Europe, and 
attract as many as two hun- 
dred thousand strangers annu- 
ally. In a single season goods 
are exchanged to the value 
of nearly $200,000,000, and 
prices are fixed on crops and 
other materials for the coming 
year. Why could not such 
a centre for trade be better 
located upon the Caspian 
Sea? 

St. Petersburg. — While 
the two cities just described 
are very old, their position 
in the interior is not well 
adapted for communication 
with distant nations. It 
was this fact which led 
Peter the Great, in 1703, to found St. Petersburg at the head of the 
Gulf of Finland. The site selected is very marshy, and the climate 
is cold, foggy, and unhealthful. Moreover, the arm of the sea on 
which the city is 
situated is so shal- 
low that a ship 
canal twenty miles 
in length has been 
necessary to con- 
nect it with the 
deeper water far- 
ther west. In ad- 
dition, the harbor 
is ice - bound for 
more than four 
months each year. 

Yet in spite of Fig. 36-i. 

all these clisadvan- St. Isaac's Church in St. Petersburg. 



Fig. 363. 
Greek Church at Moscow. 




RUSSIA 341 

tages, St. Petersburg is already the largest city in Russia, and the 
fifth in size in Europe — facts that show how much such a seaport 
was needed. It is also one of the most magnificent of cities, having 
especially wide streets, splendid public buildings, and fine residences. 
More goods are shipped by this route than from any other Baltic 
port. Riga, to the southwest, has about half as much shipping. 

Odessa. — Odessa, another important port, was founded a little 
over a century ago when Russia obtained possession of the north- 
western coast of the Black Sea. Since the harbor is rarely frozen 
over for more than a few days, it possesses a great advantage 
over St. Petersburg, which it equals in its shipping trade. Besides 
being the chief outlet for the vast grain trade of southern Russia, 
and the principal port on the Black Sea, Odessa is an important 
flour-milling centre, like Minneapolis. 

Warsaw and Lodz. — Thus far the Russians have found no opportunity 
to obtain possession of Constantinople, although they have, no doubt, felt 
many a yearning in that direction. Why ? But their progress in the west 
has not been confined to the establishment of seaports. They have extended 
their territory in various directions, one of their most important acquisi- 
tions being a large part of Poland, in which are situated two of the lead- 
ing cities of Russia, — Warsaw and Lodz. The former is a centre for the 
railways that connect Russia with western Europe, and the latter is an 
important manufacturing centre. Much coal and iron are mined in this 
vicinity. 

Fiyiland, whose capital is Helsingfors, although a part of the Russian 
Empire, has a measure of independence. There is a parliament which 
makes laws, but the Czar has the right of veto. Unlike the Russians, 
most of whom belong to the Greek Church, the Finns are mostly Protes- 
tants, belonging to the Lutheran Church. Mistreatment by the Russian 
government has recently led to the migration of many Finns and Poles 
to the United States. The policy of the Russian is to destroy the 
nationality of the people. 

Remembering that Russia owns Siberia also, and has lately been 
establishing ports on the Pacific coast and building railways to them, 
it is evident that this is one of the most progressive of European 
nations. Russia is now one of the six Great Powers, and, with the 
education of the people and the development of the immense re- 
sources, the nation promises to grow rapidly more powerful. 

Review Questions. — (1) Tell about the size of the Russian Empire. 
(2) What can you say about its position with reference to the sea? (3) Describe 
its surface features. (4) Tell about the rivers. (5) Tell about the Caspian Sea. 



342 EUROPE 

(6) How does the climate vary? (7) Tell about the people. (8) What about the 
government? (9) Tell about lumbering. (10) What are the principal farm 
products? (11) What about grazing? (12) What mineral products are found? 
Where? (13) For what purpose is some of the petroleum used? (14) What is 
the condition of manufacturing? (15) Tell about each of the cities: (a) Moscow 
— location, comparison with Madrid, importance; (h) Nijni Novgorod — location, 
fairs; (c) St. Petersburg — location, surroundings, importance; (c/) Odessa — 
location, importance; (e) Warsaw; (/) Lodz. (16) What are the conditions in 
Finland ? (17) What about Russia's future ? 

Suggestions. — (1) Compare the ai-ea of the Caspian Sea with that of Lake 
Superior. (2) Read about how the inhabitants of Moscow burned their houses in 
1812 rather than give shelter to Napoleon's army. What followed? (3) What 
must be some of the difficulties connected with building good roads in southern 
Russia? (4) What did Kosciusko, the Pole, do to make his name memorable to 
Americans ? (5) Have you read the story of Thaddeus of Warsaw ? If so, what 
can you tell about it? (6) Read about how Peter the Great wandered through 
European countries as a common workman, in order to obtain the benefit of 
Western ideas. (7) Make a sketch map of Russia, with principal rivers, cities, 
etc. (8) Compare the area and population of Russia and the United States. 
Also the degrees of latitude included in the two countries. (9) Where else besides 
on the Atlantic, Pacific, and Mediterranean does Russia desire an opening to 
the sea? 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 



VIII. GERMAN EMPIRE 

Map Questioxs (Fig. 374). — Compare the latitude of Berlin with that of 
London. (2) Of New York. (3) Estimate the greatest length of Germany from 
east to west. From north to south. (4) How does it compare in size with the 
British Isles? Russia? (5) How much of the boundary is natural? (See also 
Fig. 374.) (6) Point out the principal rivers. To what extent do they corre- 
spond in general direction? (7) Is most of the surface plain or mountainous? 
(Fig. 304.) Where are the mountains ? (8) What facts do you notice about the 
coast line ? (9) Is the North Sea or the Baltic the more favorable place for sea- 
ports ? Why ? 

Extent and Position. — The German Empire contains 209,000 
square miles, which is an area a little larger than France and twice 
the size of Colorado, But it has about 56,000,000 inhabitants, or 
over a hundred times as many as Colorado and 17,000,000 more than 
France. 

The position of this great nation offers a marked contrast to that 
of Great Britain. Only about one-third of its boundary is water, 
while its frontier comes in contact with seven independent countries, 
aside from Luxemburg. What are their names ? 

The location of the British Isles is regarded as favorable for world 
commerce, inasmuch as densely populated Europe lies near at hand 
on one side, while the far-away New World is on the other side. 
The situation of Germany possesses great advantages, also. Owing 
to her central location, most of the markets of the continent are at 
her very doors, while two of her principal ports, Hamburg and 
Bremen, face (xreat Britain and the West. On the map (Fig. 374) 
find some of the large cities that can be quickly reached from Ger- 
many. In these days of railways Germany's central position is supe- 
rior to that of England for European trade. 

People and Government. — It has required a great struggle, which 
has lasted through centuries, to bring under one rule the various 
people within the boundarj' line of the German Empire. For cen- 
turies there was, at best, only a loose confederation to hold them 
together ; and the numerous states which occupied the region were 
often at war with one another and with surrounding nations. Their 
condition was, in some respects, similar to our own during and im- 

343 



344 



E US OPE 



mediately following the Revolutionary War. There was, however, 
one important fact to their disadvantage — their meddlesome neigh- 
bors helped to intensify the quarrels that arose among them. 

During the War of 1866 Prussia and Austria, the principal king- 
doms of the German Confederatio7i, strove with each other for the 
exclusive leadership. Prussia proved, successful, and Austria with- 
drew from the union. In 1871 the new G-erman Empire, with its 
present boundaries, was established. 

*- All together there are twenty-six states within the Empire, some 
of them being Mngdoms, some duchies, and some merely free towns. 
The smallest of all is the city of Bremen, occupying only ninety-nine 




Fig. 365. 

The German Reichstag, corresponding to our House of Representatives, meets in tliis 
building, in Berlin. The other legislative branch, called the Bundesrath, is composed of 
members appointed by the various German states. 

square miles,, while Prussia, the largest, contains more than one-half of 
the entire empire, and in 1897 had a population of about 32,000,000. 
They are all united under a central authority, more closely and less inde- 
pendently than our states. In place of a President they have an Em- 
peror (the King of Prussia being by law the German Emperor), and their 
form of government is a constitutional monarchy (Fig. 365). However, 
the power of the Emperor is much greater than that of the British king, 
though less absolute than that of the Russian Czar. 

Defence. — The Germans in a war with France in 1870 not only 
defeated the French, but compelled them to pay a large sum of 
money. At the same time they seized the French territory west of 
the Rhine, called Alsace-Lorraine, in which Metz and Strassburg are 



GERMAN EMPIRE 345 

situated. This is a suggestion of the way in whicli much of Ger- 
many's irregular frontier line has been determined. To a great 
extent mountains form the southern boundary, and water the north- 
ern ; but the eastern and western limits, largely decided by war, do 
not follow any natural barrier. Draw an outline map of Germany. 
In order to preserve her present boundaries, Germany must be 
prepared to defend them at any time. This need calls many citizens 
to an occupation which we have not thus far considered, namely, 
that of preparing for war. 

It is a fact that each of the great European nations is jealously watch- 
ing the others ; and as no one of them knows how soon a dispute may 
arise with its neighbor, each maintains a large and thoroughly equipped 
army. The object of each is to be so dangerous that others may fear to 
offend or attack it ; and if once involved in war to come off victorious. 

For such reasons all able-bodied young men in Germany are required 
to devote usually two full years and parts of several succeeding years to 
active military training. Most of them enter the service at about the age 
of twenty ; and as there are about four hundred thousand males arriving 
at that age every year, one can obtain some idea of what it costs a Euro- 
pean nation to have close neighbors. The peace footing of the German 
army is almost six hundred thousand men, which is larger than the num- 
ber employed in all the mines of the British Isles. In addition to this, 
the German navy calls for many recruits. As all these men are, for the 
time being, withdrawn from industrial pursuits, the nation loses the fruits 
of their labor for that period. Thus the productiveness of the nation is 
reduced. 

Extensive fortifications are built near the boundary, as at Cologne 
Metz, and Strassburg on the French side, and Konigsberg and Posen near 
Russia. They are also numerous in the neighborhood of the great interior 
cities, and at strategic points here and there. The expense of these forti- 
fications, and the vast sums required to keep up the army and navy, form 
a heavy drain upon the nation. 

Germany is not unlike the other European nations in these respects, 
As already stated (p. 299), the British, having no immediate neighbors, 
rely mainly upon their powerful navy for defence. But every one of the 
Great Powers is calling for many men, and expending large sums of money 
either for the army or navy, or both. In fact, preparation for war is one 
of the great occupations of Europe to-day. 

Physiography. — Germany consists of two quite different parts. 
The southern section is mainly a mountainous region of ancient date, 
and is therefore worn low, like the mountains of Great Britain and 
New England. It is, in fact, a plateau from one to two thousand 



346 



EUROPE 



feet in height, with some ranges, like the Erzgebirge, rising high 
enough to be commonly classed as mountains. Only in the ex- 
treme south, on the edge of the Alps, is a great altitude reached, 
one peak being nearly ten thousand feet above sea level. 

Valuable minerals have been revealed by the wearing away of 
these ancient mountains ; indeed, the mineral belt of southern Bel- 
gium and northeastern France is but a continuation of the highlands 
which cross southern and central Germany. 

Northern Germany is a lowland, broadening toward the east 
until it merges into the plains of Russia. In the neighborhood of 
Holland the plain is very low and flat (Fig. 366) : but in most 
places, owing to the irregular deposits left by the Scandinavian 

glaciers, it is rolling. Ele- 
vations in this part of Ger- 
many rarely exceed six 
hundred feet. This plain 
is, in large part, included 
in Prussia, the greatest and 
most powerful of the Ger- 
man kingdoms. 

Most of the drainage is 
northward into the North 
and Baltic seas. What river 
rises in the highland region 
of southern Germany, and crosses Austria, finally to enter the Black Sea ? 
Name and trace the courses of four large rivers which flow northward. 
Of these the Rhine is the most important. Notice the large number of 
cities along its banks. While parts of the Rhine valley are broad and 
densely settled, the river in the central part of its course flows through 
a deep and beautiful gorge cut in the highlands. 

Climate. — The average yearly rainfall is about twenty-eight 
inches, decreasing toward the east about twenty inches near the 
Russian border. That these figures may be better appreciated, we 
may recall the fact that the average rainfall in most parts of the 
United States east of the Mississippi River is over forty inches. 

Note the number of degrees of latitude included in Germany. Never- 
theless, owing to the difference in elevation, the southern plateau is about 
as cold in winter as the northern lowland. In summer, however, the 
southern part is warmer than the northern. But the valleys of the south, 
being low and enclosed, are warmer than the northern plains both in winter 




Fig. 366. 

A view ou the very level plain of North Germany. 



GEBMAN EMPIRE 347 

and in summer, and are therefore capable of producing sucli crops as 
tobacco and grapes. 

The increase in extremes of temperature toward the east, or away 
from the ocean, is illustrated on the coast. The North Sea is almost free 
from ice, while the Baltic ports are frozen over for a time ; and the farther 
east they lie, the longer their trade is arrested by the cold. What must 
be some of the results of this fact ? 

Forests. — That the mountains of Germany are low enough to be 
well wooded, is indicated by the frequent use of the word ivald (the 




Fig. 367. 

A view ou the Eliine at Bingen. Notice the oijposite bank where the earth has been terraced 
so that even the hill slope may he used for vineyards. 

German for wood) in the mountain names. , Where the soil is poor, 
as in the stretches of sand deposited during the Ice Age, much of 
the lowland is also Avoocled. Altogether about one-fourth of the 
surface of the empire is covered wdth trees. 

The tendency of the German people to useful and sensible economy is 
well illustrated in their treatment of the woodlands. Instead of wantonly 
devastating them by fire and the axe — as has been done in so many parts 
of our own country — they maintain an excellent system of forest culture. 
Trees are planted in place of those that are cut for timber, these are given 
proper care, and thus the woods continue to be abundant. By this system, 
also, forest culture becomes profitable. It is partly due to the encourage- 
ment received from the success in Germany, that forest reservations have 
been established in various parts of the United States, and schools of 
forestry founded, as in New York, for the purpose of studying how to 
care properly for our woods. 



348 EUROPE 

Agriculture and Grazing. — On the whole, Germany has not a fer- 
tile soil; but the farm products are very extensive, because the 
people are both industrious and intelligent, and their method of cul- 
tivating the soil is excellent. What countries may well be contrasted 
with them in this respect ? 

More than one-third of the population are dependent for their 
living upon agriculture, the leading industry of the nation. Ger- 
many is one of the most important grain-producing countries of 
Europe ; but here rye replaces wheat as the principal grain. Pota- 
toes, introduced from America, are raised in such quantities that, like 
rye, they form one of the principal foods. These two crops are ex- 
tensively cultivated, both because they are a cheap food, and because 
they flourish in the light soil and cool summer climate, character- 
istic of so much of Germany. Sugar beets, hay, oats, and barley are 
other important crops of the northern plains, while in the Rhine and 
other warm, sheltered valleys of the south, hops, tobacco, and grapes 
are raised in large quantities. 

Since much of the lowland is too sandy for cultivation, and much of 
the highland too rugged, it is not surprising that one-sixth of all the 
surface consists of natural pasture. Cattle for beef and for dairy purposes 
are kept in nearly all parts of the empire, but especially in the damper 
climate of the west. 

Mining. — Next to Great Britain, Germany is the greatest mining 
country of Europe ; and, as in the United Kingdom, her most valu- 
able minerals, coal and iron, often occur in the same region. Ger- 
many and Belgium together produce more zinc than all the rest of 
the world ; and nearly half the silver obtained in Europe is mined in 
Germany. Much lead and copper also come from Germany. 

This country resembles our own in the wide distribution of its coal 
beds. The coal fields that were found in Belgium and northeastern France 
(p. 375) extend into Germany in the neighborhood of Aachen ; and from 
this point eastward to the Russian border there are several important coal 
fields. 

There are also immense salt mines, as at Stassfurt, northwest of 
Halle, from which are obtained not only table salt, but products used in 
the manufacture of soap, in dyeing, bleaching, glass making, and calico 
printing. The Germans employ thoroughly scientific methods in their 
mining work ; and it is from them that other nations have learned many 
of the methods which are employed in reducing ores to metal. 



GERMAN EMPIRE 



349 



Manufacturing. — From tlie above facts we may expect to find. 
Germany a great manufacturing country, with lier manufacturing 
centres well distributed. Explain why. 

About a third of the inhabitants are dependent upon manu- 
facturing, and in recent years Germany has so advanced in this 
industry that she now ranks next to the United Kingdom in the 
■quantity and excellence of her 
goods. 

The distribution of the coal 
and iron gives the key to the 
principal centres for iron man- 
ufacturing. The busiest sec- 
tion is along the Rhine, in the 
vicinity of Cologne, which 
may well be compared with 
northern England in the ex- 
tent of its industries. A second 
centre is about Dresden and 
Chemnitz, and a third at 
Breslait in the southeastern 
corner of the empire. As in 
other countries so far studied, 
the textile industries are best 
developed near the coal fields. 
Therefore the sections men- 
tioned above are distinguished 
for cotton, woollen, and silk 
factories as well as for iron. 

The extensive forests partly 
account for a third occupation of many sections; namely, the manu- 
facture of furniture, paper, and other materials made of wood. 




Fig. 368. 

Storks at Strassburg-, — a familiar bird in Ger- 
rnany which builds nests ou the chimneys. 



The map (Fig. 439) shows no cities south of Breslau; yet a busy 
manufacturing centre exists there. The explanation is that the people 
carry on this work largely in their own homes, instead of in factories. 
Living in a hilly country, where agriculture is not very profitable, they 
spin and weave the flax and wool raised near by. They also make lace and 
carve wood ; but, although villages stretch for miles along the valleys, 
there are no large towns. 

The manufacture of spirituous liquors is another prominent German 
industry. A portion of the immense potato crop is made into spirits, and 



350 EUROPE 

also some of the beets. But beer, in which barley and hops are used, is 
the common beverage. Prom the grapes of southern Germany much wine 
is manufactured, though not nearly so much as in France. 

For a long time nearly all sugar was obtained from sugar-cane, although 
maple trees supplied a small amount ; but German chemists found a means 
of extracting sugar from beets. By improving the process, and by de- 
veloping the beets until they contained more sugar, the great industries of 
sugar-beet raising, and the refining of beet-root sugar, have been made' 
possible. Each year this source of sugar has been proving a more formi- 
dable rival to sugar-cane, until now a large part of the sugar consumed in 
Europe, and even some of that used in North America, is obtained from 
sugar-beets. One important reason why this industry has thrived is that 
sugar-beets grow in a cool temperate climate where population is dense 
and markets are numerous. 

Formerly Germany had to rely upon foreigners for sugar ; but since 
the development of this industry, beet sugar has become one of its greatest 
exports. Nevertheless, the population is so dense and so many are en- 
gaged in manufacturing, that, like the British, the Germans cannot raise 
all the food they need. Therefore much food, such as wheat and meat, as 
well as raw materials for manufacture, such as cotton, wool, and silk, 
must come from abroad. 

Germany's Rapid Advance. — No European country in the last 
quarter of a century has experienced such rapid growth as Germany. 
For example, in the twenty-five years preceding 1895 her increase 
in population was over 11,000,000, while France had an increase of 
only 2,500,000. The empire has had a corresponding gain in 
wealth. 

Undoubtedly the strong central government established in 1871, and 
with it the laying aside of the petty jealousies that paralyzed industries, 
is one cause of this advance. But there are many other causes, of which 
one of the most influential is education and the encouragement of science. 
Every German child is forced by law to attend school ; and careful atten- 
tion is given to the study of the variou.s industries, foreign products, lan- 
guages, etc. In the higher commercial and technical schools young men 
obtain excellent preparation for various kinds of business, while in many 
other countries there is little or no provision for such education. 

The value of scientific work is fully recognized and encouraged by the 
government ; and that such encouragement is profitable to the nation is 
proved by the wonderful development of the sugar industry, the mines, 
and the factories. Not many years ago much of the manufacturing was 
done by hand; but now the best machinery has been introduced, and 
Germany is one of the three leading manufacturing nations of the world. 
Name the other two. 



GERMAN EMPIBE 



351 



Colonies and Emigrants. — The recent acquisition of foreign territory is 
an indication of the growth of Germany. The empire is now in possession 
of extensive areas in the island of Kew Guinea, north of Australia, and 
in both east and west Africa, as well as smaller colonies elsewhere 
(Fig. 353). 

Many Germans have emigrated to various parts of the New World. 
Fully five million emigrants have come to the United States within the 
last seventy-five years, while the British Isles have sent us not quite seven 
million. Naturally many of the German emigrants to other countries 
have kept up trade with their fatherland, and have thereby increased the 
commerce of Germany. 



Principal Cities and their Commerce 

After the preceding statements, it may not be surprising to learn 
that the leading German cities have experienced as rapid a growth 
as those of America. In the twenty years between 1870 and 1890, 




Fig. 369. 
The Dresden Art Museum. 

for example, Berlin had a more rapid growth than New York, and 
added as many actual new residents as Chicago. In 1875 Boston had 
almost a hundred thousand more inhabitants than Hamburg ; but 
now Hamburg has nearly a hundred and fifty thousand more than 
Boston. Other German cities have increased, and are still increas- 
ing, in population at much the same rate. 



352 



EUROPE 



Berlin. — The position of Berlin, on a small river (Fig. 373) on 
the North German plain, midway between the coast and the high- 
lands, may not at first seem advantageous. But the Oder and some 
of the tributaries of the Elbe approach so near each other in this 
section that they have easily been united by canal. Thus Berlin has 
water connection with both Hamburg and Stettin, as well as with 
all parts of these two river systems, — a very important aid in obtain- 
ing fuel, food, etc., for the city. Observe also (Fig. 374) that Ber- 
lin lies on the direct route from Hamburg to Breslau, and from 
Stettin to Leipzig, and that other large cities surround it. It is, 
moreover, on the route of several great European railways, and is 
therefore one of the important railway centres of the continent. 

With such excellent connections, by water and by rail, Berlin has 
naturally become one of the great manufacturing cities. Fully half 
the residents are supported by this industry, which includes brewing, 
the manufacture of fancy articles, clothing, machinery, etc. Besides 
being the capital of Prussia and of the German Empire, Berlin is the 
centre of German banking. It is noted for its art and music, and 
for its great university, the largest in the empire. There are a num- 
ber of suburbs, one being 
Potsdam ( Fig. 373 ), the 
German " Versailles," in 
which are located several 
royal palaces. 

Interior Cities near 
Berlin. — Among the cities 
not far from Berlin is 
Leipzig, the fourth largest 
in the empire. It is situ- 
ated at the junction of two 
small streams at a point 
where roads from the high- 
land meet those from the 
lowland. Formerly it was 
a centre for wagon roads, 
and now it has naturally become a railway centre. Owing to 
its favorable position, Leipzig is, next to Berlin, the most important 
trade centre of Germany. One of its leading articles of commerce 
is fur. It is the seat of a noted university, and a centre for the 
German book trade. 




Fig. 370. 
A castle on the Rhiue. 



GEBMAN EMPIRE 



353 



Dresden, southeast of Leipzig, is noted for its art museum (Fig. 
369), which rivals the Louvre of Paris. The beautiful Dresden 
china is made in this vicinity, and in recent years much manufactur- 
ing has developed, for Dresden is situated on a navigable river and 
has coal near at hand. It is, moreover, the capital of Saxony, the 
most densely settled Ger- 



man state. 

Chemnitz, near by, has 
important textile industries ; 
and Halle and Magdeburg, 
farther to the northwest, and 
in the centre of the chief 
beet-growing area, are ex- 
tensively engaged in the 
manufacture of sugar. 

Breslau, only a little 
smaller than Leipzig, is on a 
navigable river, and has the 
advantage of being near a 
very rich coal and iron field. 
It is, therefore, a great manvi- 
facturing city, and its situa- 
tion near the frontier makes 
it an important market for 
eastern and central Europe. 

Seaports. — Hamburg, 

which is larger than St. 
Louis, is the second city in 
Germany, and the most 
important seaport on the 
continent. The reasons 
for this are clear when it 
is known that the estuary 




Fig. 371. 

The Cologne Cathedral, one of the most beautiful 
Gothic edifices in the world, was begun in 1248 and 
completed in 1880. 



of the Elbe (Fig. 873) makes an excellent harbor, usually free from 
ice, and that Germany has an extensive foreign trade. Name some 
articles which that port probably receives from the United States. 
What water connections has Hamburg with the interior ? 

Bremei^ and Stettin also admit large vessels, and are the chief 
rivals of Hamburg ; but they together have less than one-half as much com- 
merce as Hamburg. In what respects are they less favorably situated 
for commerce than Hamburg? 

2a 



354 



EUROPE 



Name other Baltic ports beside Stettin. Which is a natural outlet for 
wheat from Russian Poland ? Estimate the distance saved to the Baltic 
ports by the construction of the Kaiser Wilhelm canal, which is sixty-one 
miles in length. 

Cities along the Rhine. — On ascending the river into Germany 
we come to the great manufacturing region already mentioned 




Fig. -.rrz. 
A scene in Frankfort. 

(p. 349). What cities are there? Cologne, the largest, with a 
population of more than a third of a million, is on the river bank. 
It is a great shipping point, since railways cross the river, and boats 
from London and other places are able to ascend to this point. 

Elberfeld and Barmen have textile manufactories ; Essen is famous 
for the Krupp steel works ; Krefeld is an important silk manufacturing 
town; Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle in French) manufactures woollen cloth. 

Just beyond the great bend in the Rhine is Frankfort, on a 
navigable tributary, the Main, along which lies the easiest route 
from the Rhine valley to the Danube. Since the railway from the 
German plain to the upper Rhine passes Frankfort, it is a centre of 
important trade, routes, and therefore one of the leading trading and 
banking centres in western Germany. It has long been a prominent 
city and was the capital of the old German Confederation (p. 343). 




Fig. 373. 
Berlin and vicinity. 




Fig. 374. 
Map Questions : Sioitzerland. — (1) What countries snrrouiid Switzerland ? 
(2) From which one is it least separated by mountains? (3) What large rivers rise 
among the Alps? In what directions do they flow? (4) Notice the lakes among the 
Alps? (5) How does the area of Switzerland compare with that of your own state? 
(6) What reasons can you suggest for so small a nation remaining independent in the midst 
of powerful countries ? 



GERMAN EMPIRE 355 

Railways to the Danube pass through Munich, the capital of the 
kingdom of Bavaria. Although so far to the south, and so distant 
from coal, Munich is the third city in size in the realm. It is on the 
trade routes from Germany to Italy and to Austria, and is accord- 
ingly an important railway centre. Much of its renown is due to its 
art collections and its art industries, such as work in bronze, gold, 
silver, glass painting, and porcelain manufacturing. 

North of Munich, on the road to Berlin, is Nuremberg, a city 
widely known for its careful preservation of the old art and architec- 
ture that made it famous in former centuries, and for its present 
manufacture of toys. 

Review Questions. — Give (1) the area of Germany; (2) the population; 
(3) the boundaries. (4) What advantage does Germany's position give her for 
European trade ? Tell about (5) the early condition ; (6) the government ; 
(7) preparation for war; (8) physiography; (9) rainfall; (10) temperature; 
(11) forests; (12) agriculture; (13) grazing; (14) mining; (15) manufacturing. 
(16) Give some of the causes for Germany's recent advance. (17) What about 
the growth of German cities? Tell (18) about Berlin; (19) cities near Berlin; 
(20) the seaports. (21) What about cities along the banks of the Rhine? 
(22) Give reasons for the importance of Munich. 

SuGGESTioxs. — (1) Look \\\ an atlas to find in what part of the empire the 
larger states, such as Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, etc., are situated. (2) People 
often assert that the peace of Europe is preserved by extensive preparation for 
war; in what sense can this be true? (3) What must be some of the benefits of 
two years of active training in the army, aside from preparation for war ? What 
some of the disadvantages ? What relation has this to emigration ? (4) What is 
the size of our standing army? Why so small? (.5) What seaports of Europe 
most nearly approach Hamburg in size? (6) How may the Kaiser Wilhelm canal 
possibly prove an injury to Hamburg? (7) Show that Germany in her industries 
resembles Great Britain, while contrasting with Russia and Norway. (8) Find 
out something about Goethe, Schiller, Humboldt, Emperor William the First, 
Bismarck, Von Moltke, AVagner, and Schumann. 



IX. SWITZERLAND 



Physiography and Climate. — This is a very mountainous country 
(Figs. 375-379), for the Jura Mountains are on the northwestern 

jborder, while the Alps 
occupy the southern half. 
iBetween these two moun- 
tain systems, which extend 
northeast and southwest, 
is a low, hilly plateau, from 
one to two thousand feet 
in altitude. About one- 
third of Switzerland is in- 
cluded in the plateau belt. 
In so rugged a country one 
would not expect to find 
a large population ; yet 
Switzerland is almost as 
densely settled as France, 
and much more so than 
the state of New York. 

It is evident that the 
temperature of this moun- 
tainous country must be 
low, and that it must vary greatly with the altitude. This is 
well illustrated in the Alps, at whose base are found chestnut and 
walnut trees, which are replaced higher up by beech, maple, and 
other trees of the cool temperate zones, and still higher by a belt of 
evergreens. Above these come dwarfed trees, shrubs, grass, etc. ; 
and higher still, at an average elevation of about nine thousand feet 
above sea level, the snow line is reached. 

The numerous lofty mountains, rising in the path of the prevailing 
westerlies, cause Switzerland to be one of the wettest countries on the con- 
tinent. On the higher moimtains much snow falls, and, sliding down the 
mountain sides in the form of avalanches, it gathers in the valleys to pro- 

356 




Fig. 375. 
A glacier in the Swiss Alps. 



SWITZERLAND 



357 



duce streams of ice, or glaciers (Fig. 375). These move slowly down the 
valleys until they reach a point below the snow line where the ice melts. 
They there deposit terminal moraines, which, 
though smaller, resemble the moraines made 
by the continental glaciers of the Ice Age 
(p. 9). The Eh one and many other rivers 
are supplied with water by the melting of 
the Alpine glaciers. 

People and Government. — People who 
dwell among mountains develop a spirit 
of independence, as is illustrated by the 
stor}^ of William Tell. Thus we find that, 
as early as 1291, an agreement was made 
among a few of the small Swiss states, or 
cantons, for mutual protection against op- 
pression. Many a time since then for- 
eigners have attempted to conquer the 
Swiss ; but, aided by the difficult ap- 
proaches to their country, and by the 
mountain fastnesses to which they could 
retreat, they have been able to maintain 
their freedom, although the entire area 
of the country is only one-third that of 
Pennsylvania. Their twenty-two can- 
tons, united somewhat as are our own 
states, now constitute a republic, whose 
neutrality is guaranteed by the Great Powers of Europe. 

But while there is one stable government, there is not one common 
language. The country is most open toward the north, for the plateau of 
Switzerland merges into that of Germany. ISTaturally, therefore, German- 
speaking people are most abundant, making up 72 per cent of the popula- 
tion. The approach from France is much more difficult, and the French 
population constitutes only 22 per cent of the whole, while but 5 per cent 
speak Italian. 

Farming. — Owing to the mountainous condition, only one acre 
in nine is fit for the plough. Yet agriculture is tlie principal indus- 
try. On the lower lands grain, grapes, and the silk-worm are raised, 
as in the neighboring countries ; and on the lower mountains dairy- 
farming is important, as might be expected. The population is so 
dense, however, that much food must be imported, though some 
products, such as cheese and condensed milk, are exported. 




Fig. 376. 

A Swiss peasant costume. 



858 EunoPE 

Manufacturing. — Switzerland is very poor in mineral deposits, 
and coal is entirely lacking. This scarcity of raw materials would 
suggest that there is little manufacturing,- but the inference is false. 
That the Swiss possess marked mechanical skill is indicated by the 
remarkable wood carving for which they have long been noted. 
Like New Englanders, in spite of the absence of coal, cotton, and 
ore deposits, they have engaged extensively in the manufacture of 
light articles, such as textile goods, jewelry, etc. 




Fig. 377. 
A view of Lake Lucerne. The wall on the left bounds a road which is cut in the rock on 

the mountain side. 

The commercial position of Switzerland is advantageous, since it is 
entirely surrounded by densely populated countries which supply raw 
materials and furnish a market for manufactured goods. The influence of 
the latter fact upon the cities is very marked. 

Leading Cities. — The largest city, Zurich, on Lake Zurich, is 
an important raihvay centre. The St. Gothard railway, which runs 
northward from Genoa and Milan, connects the city with Italy, while 
other railways .bring it in touch with France, Germany, and Austria. 
These roads are especially important for the introduction of foods and 
raw materials for manufacture. Therefore Zurich is the centre of 
one of the principal manufacturing districts, and is itself especially 
noted for the manufacture of silks, cotton, and machinery. 

The St. Gothard Tunnel, from which the railway takes its name, is 
the longest tunnel in the world, and is a marvel of engineering skill. 
Before reaching the main tunnel several smaller ones are entered, through 
which the train winds in a spiral course, so that once or twice a passenger 
comes out of the mountain almost directly over the point where he entered 
it ; and in soine cases he can see, far below him two places, one above the 
other, at which the train entered to follow its spiral course in the moun- 



SWITZERLAND 



359 



tain rook. This method of construction is rendered necessary because the 
grade is so steep that a train could not be drawn directly up a straight 
track. The main tunnel, which 
is nine and one-fourth miles 
long, is quite straight. Since 
silk-making is the chief manu- 
facturing industry in Switzer- 
land, this tunnel, by opening 
connection with the raw silk 
market of northern Italy, has 
greatly aided in its develop- 
ment, he Simplon Tunnel is 
now being built a short dis- 
tance west of the St. Gothard. 

Basel, which forms the 
second centre of population 
in Switzerland, is the busi- 
est railway point in the 
country. It is on the main 
line of the St. Gothard rail- 
way, and on the Rhine 
where it enters German\ 
from Switzerland. Why 
is its position, near both 
France and Germany, favor- 
able to manufacturing ? 

Geneva, situated on 
the southwestern end of Lake Geneva, where the Rhone enters 
France, is a noted educational centre. It is on a very ancient and 
important trade route from southern France to Germany (p. 319), 
and therefore has excellent railway connections. Water power is 
much used in generating electricit}^ for use in manufacturing, and 
the city makes jewelry and scientific instruments. 

Berne, the capital, is centrally located ; but it is a small city 
because its situation for commerce is not favorable. 




Fig. 378. 

The Matterhorn peak, one of the steepest in Switzer- 
land. 



Scenery and Tourists. — Many of the Swiss cities are beautifully situ- 
ated upon lakes, and within sight of mountain peaks always covered by 
snow. Lucerne, for example, is surrounded by most beautiful and varied 
scenery. The city is located upon Lake Lucerne, and lofty mountains 
rise in the immediate neighborhood (Fig. 377). Mts. Rigi and Pilatus 
are near by, and from their summit one obtains a magnificent view of the 



360 EUROPE 

lake, bordered by green meadows and numerous villages, over four thousand 
feet below ; while in several directions, as far as the eye can reach, are the 
crests of stupendous, jagged mountains. On account of such scenery 
Switzerland is the most noted summer resort of Europe. 




Fig. 379. 
Lake Geneva in a valley among the Alps. The Rhone River flows out of this lake. 

Review Questions. — (1) What are the principal physiographic features ? 
(2) How does the temperature vary? (3) What about the rainfall V (4) Tell 
about the glaciers. (5) Giye reasons why the Swiss have been able to maintain 
their independence. (6) What about their language ? (7) What about raw mate- 
rials? (8) Give reasons for the development of manufacturing. (9) For what is 
Zurich important? (10) Tell about the St. Gothard Tunnel. (11) Tell about 
(a) Basel, (h) Geneva, (c) Berne. (12) Why do so many tourists visit Switzerland? 

Suggestions. — (1) What other factors besides altitude cause great variety 
of climate in Switzerland ? (2) How may the lakes act as filters and regulators 
for the rivers? (3) The Rhone enters Lake Geneva laden with sediment derived 
from the glaciers ; but it leaves the lake clear of sediment. By such deposits 
extensive deltas are built in all of the lakes. Of what value is that fact ? (4) What 
special reasons are there for giving particular attention to the study of English and 
other foreign languages in the Swiss schools? (5) Why has Switzerland, unlike 
many Europeau countries, not come into possession of colonies ? (6) Find the 
meaning of referendum and popular initiative in Swiss legislation. (7) Why 
should Switzerland be selected as a place of refuge by persecuted people and politi- 
cal refugees from other nations ? (8) Read that portion of the story of William 
Tell which is supposed to have occurred about Lake Lucerne. (9) Find out 
about Louis Agassiz : where born ; where he later lived ; and what he did to 
establish his explanation of the Great Ice Age. 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 



— X. ITALY 

:7 Map Questions (Fig. 374). — (1) Of what does the shape of Italy remind 
you? (2) How does its latitude compare with that of Spain? (3) What neighbor- 
ing islands belong to it? (4) Point out the principal river. (5) How are the 
lofty mountains in the north likely to affect the climate ? (6) What countries 
border Italy ? (7) What seas border the peninsula ? (8) How does its position 
seem to be advantageous for commerce ? 

Extent and Position. — Italy is " the very heart of the Mediterra- 
nean lands, and plaj^s a great part as a link in the chain of com- 
niiinication between northwestern Europe and the Far East." For 
example, mails from London to India go by rail to Brindisi in south- 
eastern Italy, and thence by steamer. What countries in Africa 
lie nearest to Italy? (Fig. 443.) Estimate the distance to them. 

The area of Italy, including the islands of Sicily and Sardinia, 
is only a little greater than that of Colorado, but its population is 
about 32,000,000. It is the smallest of the six Great Powers, but 
is the most densely populated of any excepting the United Kingdom. 
Name the Powers. 

People and Government. — The inhabitants of Italy are a mixture 
of many peoples. In early times, the central position of the Italian 
peninsula was of importance in aiding the government at Rome to 
control the lands bordering on the Mediterranean Sea. At that time 
people from the surrounding lands of Europe, Asia, and Africa were 
brought to the peninsula, often as slaves captured in war. Later, when 
the power of the Roman Empire was weakened, hordes of barbarians 
invaded Italy. Nevertheless, the permanent settlers have invariably 
been won over to one language ; and Italian, which is a growth out 
of the Latin of the ancient Romans, is now the universal tongue. 

For centuries Italy was broken up into a number of separate and 
independent kingdoms ; but here, as in other countries, the tendency 
of recent times has been toward unity. In 1860 several of the inde- 
pendent states united to form the kingdom of Italy ; and later others 
were added until, in 1870, or about the same time that the German 
Empire was formed (p. 344), the present kingdom was established 
with Rome as its capital. Like most of the European countries, Italy 
is governed by a limited, or constitutional, monarchy. 

361 



362 



EUROPE 



Physiography and Climate. — The Italian peninsula is mountain- 
ous throughout most of its extent. In the north are the Alps, some 
of whose highest peaks are on the boundary line between Italy and 
Switzerland. The Alpine ranges curve around in northwestern 
Italy and join the Appennines, which extend the entire length of the 
peninsula and form its very backbone. The principal lowlands, 
therefore, are the narrow coastal plains and the broad Po valley. 

We think of Italy as a sunny land of flowers, although Milan and 

Venice are on nearly the same parallel as Montreal. One reason for the 

pleasant climate is that the 
lofty Alps form a great wall 
which cuts off the cold north 
winds. Another reason is 
that the peninsula is under 
the equalizing influence of the 
Mediterranean, whose waters 
have a temperature of over 
50°. On these accounts the 
Italian winters are mild, and 
in the extreme south the tem- 
perature seldom falls to the 
freezing point. 

Much of Italy has an 
abundance of rain; but, ex- 
cept in the north, the greater 
part comes in winter. The 
summer drought is due to the 

fact that the liorse-latitule belt moves northward in summer (p. 220); 

therefore southern Italy at that season resembles southern Spain in 

climate. 

Agriculture. — Such a climate, together with a fertile soil, helps to 
explain why agriculture is the principal industry in Italy. Among 
the products are many that thrive in semi-tropical climates, as well 
as others that are common in the countries of northern Europe. The 
climate is so favorable that, by the aid of irrigation, from four to 
ten crops may be raised in a year. 

The most extensive farming district is the fertile plain of the Po basin. 
There is an abundance of rainfall ; yet the people depend upon irrigation 
more extensively than in any other part of Europe. There are several 
reasons for such extensive irrigation. In the first place, the fact that the 
tributaries have their sources in the mountains, and often in the glaciers 
and snows of the Alps, insures a permanent supply of water to the gently 




i'lG. oSO. 
An Italian team at Naples. 



ITALY 



363 



sloping land. Besides this, the rivers frequently flow through lakes — 
some of them among the most beautiful in the world — which act as great 
reservoirs for water supply. 

Where irrigation is so easy, the extensive cultivation of rice is 
possible. This is an important crop in northern Italy, but corn and 
wheat are raised in still greater quantities. Grapes are cultivated 
to such an extent that Italy ranks second among the wine-producing 
countries of the world ; and so many silk-worms are reared that raw 
silk is the most valuable export of the country. Among the other 
important products are eggs, which are exported in large quanti- 
ties ; also olives, oranges, lemons, flax, hemp, and wool. 

Mining and Fishing. — There is a little iron, zinc, and copper ore ; but 
one of the most important mineral products is the sulphur of Sicily ; indeed, 




Fig. 381. 

A herd of goats in the streets of Naples. These are driven about tlie city, and even into the 

houses, to be milked, 

until a few years ago this island produced most of the sulphur used in 
the world. Another important mineral product is marble, of such rare 
beauty that it is prized the world over. 

The fishing industry is important. Among the peculiar products of 
the sea are precious coral and sponges. You will remember that we found 
sponge fishing important also among the Bahama Islands east of Florida- 

Manufacturing. — As in Switzerland, electricity generated by 
water power supplies the place of coal to some extent. Conse- 
quently there is more manufacturing than one might infer from the 
lack of fuel. While much raw silk is produced, and there is some silk 



364 



EUROPE 



manufacturing, a!^large part of the silk is sent to France, Switzerland, 
and elsewhere, to be made into cloth. There are also factories for 

woollen, cotton, and flax weaving. 



:?« *®®(c 




and for other purposes. 

Most European countries take 
pride in their fine art galleries ; but 
Italy far surpasses them all and is 
the very storehouse of art, whether 
architecture, painting, or sculpture be 
considered. Accordingly, the char- 
acteristic manufactured articles are 
those of an artistic nature, as glass 
work, lace, earthenware, statuary, 
wood carving, coral carving, and straw 
plaiting. In what other country have 
we found that the artistic taste of 
the people greatly affects their manu- 
factures ? 

Principal Cities. — Estimate the 
average width of the Italian pen- 
insula. Since it possesses many 
excellent harbors, we may expect 
to find numerous large cities along 
the coast, as in Great Britain. 

Naples and Vicinity. — The 
most populous city is Naples in 
the southern part of the peninsula. The semicircular bay on which it 
is situated presents one of the most magnificent sights in the world. 
On the northwest is the city itself, ■ — about the size of Boston, — 
rising upon an amphitheatre of hills ; toward the east is Mt. Vesu- 
vius (Fig. 383), with the crests of the Appennines in the distant 
background ; and on the southeast is a steep, rocky coast, behind 
which are numerous villages partly concealed among groves of 
orange, lemon, and palm trees. 

This is one of the most fertile sections of Italy, — thanks to the ashes 
that have been thrown out of Vesuvius, — and the agricultural population 
is one of the densest in Europe. The harbor, too, is good, so that there 
is more shipping here than in any other Italian port with the exception 
of Genoa. But the secret of so large a city in this agricultural region 
is found partly in the peculiar character of Italians, who feel a dread of 
isolated homes such as are common throughout the farming districts of 



The leaning tower of Pisa, which has become 
tilted because of settling on one side. 



ITALY 



365 



the United States. Consequently tliey crowd into the villages and cities, 
even though they must travel a long distance to their field of work, or 
must suffer now and then from extreme want. 

Within plain sight of Naples stands Mt. Vesuvius, a cone of lava and 
ashes nearly a mile in height, from whose crater volumes of steam con- 
stantly pour forth. At the time of Christ the slopes of this mountain 
were dotted with productive farms, while thriving towns spread over the 
country at its base. But in the year 79 an appalling eruption took place 
which completely buried Pompeii, Herculaneum, and many villages beneath 
showers of ashes and streams of volcanic mud. Since then many erup- 
tions have been recorded, the last violent one occurring in 1872. During 
the last half-century the buried cities, especially Pompeii, have been 




Fig. 38o. 
A view of Vesuvius, with a part of Pompeii in the foreground. 

unearthed at great labor and cost. By these excavations much has been 
learned about the buildings and customs of the people who lived nearly 
two thousand years ago. 

At present, tourists daily ascend to the top of Vesuvius. There they 
see one of the most awful sights in the world when they cautiously 
approach to the very edge of the crater — an opening perhaps a fourth of 
a mile across — and peer down into the abyss. Reports like the thunder- 
ings of cannon come from far below, and lumps of lava as large as a man's 
head are often hurled upward. Not seldom lava lumps rise above the 
mouth of the opening and fall here and there outside, making one's visit 
all the more exciting by the slight danger of being hit. 

Atieient and Modern Home. — By far the most interesting spot in 
Italy is Rome, the "Eternal City," long the capital of the ancient 
world, afterward of the empire of the Popes, and now of Italy. 



366 



EUROPE 



The site of Rome was well chosen. It lies near the centre of the 
Mediterranean, and near the centre of the Italian peninsula as well. 
In that part of Italy the fertile coastal plains are broad and are inter- 
sected by the Tiber,- the largest river of the country except the Po. In 
that vicinity, also, the Appennines reach their highest altitude, which 
insures abundant water supply for the Tiber and for the plains. 
Moreover, the valley of the Tiber offers one of the most convenient 
routes across the peninsula. These are some of the advantages that 
attracted to ancient Rome a population of fully a million, and caused 
the surrounding country to be thickl}' settled and carefully tilled. 




Fig. 384. 
The Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, where the Pope lives. 

Now, however, the city contains less than half as many inhabitants, 
while the neighboring plains for miles around, though beaiTtifnl pasture 
land, have scarcely a tree or a house upon them. The reason for this lack 
of suburban life is the very prevalent malaria. At present, the country 
is of use for little else than grazing ; and as summer approaches even the 
herdsmen flee with their cattle and sheep to the mountains. 

But while agriculture and commerce do not flourish near Rome, fine 
residences, public buildings, art galleries, and notable ruins are numerous 
in the city. The dome of St. Peter's — the largest and most famous church 
in the world — towers above everything else; and the Vatican, where the 
Pope resides, is the largest palace in Christendom. In the Vatican are 
some of the finest and most beautiful of paintings (Fig. 384). 



ITALY 367 

The ruins of aucient Rome vie in interest with these products of later 
Rome, and cover so many acres that the city is almost as much a tomb as 
a living city. The most conspicuous relic of the past is the Colosseum 
(Fig. 385), a huge, oval-shaped theatre, open to the sky, with seats for 
forty or fifty thousand persons. In the days of the Roman Empire it was 
used to witness life and death struggles between men, and between men 
and wild beasts. 

The Forum is another extensive ruin within the city limits. It was 
the great public square, on a lowland between some hills ; but its monu- 
ments, arches, and other ornaments were covered Avith rubbish during the 
centuries succeeding the fall of the Empire. The excavation of this 
famous spot has not yet been completed, whole buildings, as well as smaller 
objects, having been buried in that locality. 

Other Italian Cities. — With the exception of Rome and Naples 
the large cities of the Italian peninsula are in the northern part. 




\hk { ti a 



IMtfllllltliii 



^^'■- |: 




Fig. 385. 
Ruins of the Colosseum, at Rome. 

The principal city south of Naples is Palermo, the capital of Sicily, 
and about the size of Detroit. It is situated in the midst of exten- 
sive fruit groves. What fruits would you expect to find there ? 

The first large city north of Rome is Florence, on the western 
base of the Appennines at a junction of roads across the mountains. 
Straw plaiting, mosaic work, and silk manufacturing are important 
Florentine industries ; and the city is famous for its 'art galleries. 

MiLAK, the third Italian city in size, owes its importance largely 
to its location at the crossing of roads running east and west in the 
Po Valley, and north and south over the Alps. Turin has flourished 
for a similar reason. From very early times these cities have been 
important trade centres because of their location at the crossing of 



368 



EUROPE 



trade routes in a fertile, densely populated valley. The railways 
across the Alps (p. 859) have greatly increased their importance. 

Milan" possesses a magnificent cathedral built of white marble and 
adorned with more than a hundred spires and fully four thousand 
statues. On the wall of an old monastery in Milan is Da Vinci's famous 
painting, " The Last Supper/' copies of which are often seen in our 
homes. The city is the centre of the silk trade, and manufactures much 
cutlery. 

Genoa, although separated from the Po Valley by the low 
Appennines, is the natural port of Milan and Turin. Since it is a 
port of outlet for so fertile a region, and is now connected with cen- 
tral Europe by railway (p. 359), this city is the most important 
seaport in Italy. 

The principal seaport of the Adriatic is Venice, one of the most 
interesting European cities. When hordes of barbarians were invad- 
ing Italy, some of the resi- 
dents retreated to a num- 
ber of small islands in a 
lagoon, protected from the 
sea waves by low sand bars. 
The people developed into 
a hardy, independent race, 
largely through contact 
with the sea. Their very 
position forced them to 
become sailors ; and the 
site of their city was favor- 
able for commerce between central Europe and the East. Protected 
from attack by land, Venice rose in power, and with power came 
wealth. Many beautiful houses, churches, palaces, and museums are 
reminders of the ancient splendor. 

The city is built upon more than a hundred small islands, about two 
and a half miles from the mainland, with which it is now connected by 
railway. Naturally, canals take the place of streets. There are one hun- 
dred and fifty canals, the main one, or Grand Canal, being flanked on either 
side by fine residences, the steps of which lead down into the water. 
Nearly four hundred bridges join the different islands, and there are 
many narrow footpaths, but since the chief thoroughfares are canals, gon- 
dolas (Fig. 387) take the place of wagons, carriages, and street cars. No 
doubt thousands of children in that city have never seen a horse. 




Fig. 386. 
A view of a part of Venice. 



ITALY 



369 




Fig. 387. 

A gondola in Venice — the ducal palace, or palace of 

the Doges, is seen on the farther side. 



San Marino and Malta. — San Marino, although surrounded by lands 
that belong to the kingdom of Italy, is, like Andorra (p. 321), a tiny, 
independent re|)ublic. It is 
the oldest and smallest re- 
public in the world, and owes 
its independence partly to 
the fact that the city is on 
a high hill and, therefore, 
difiicult to capture. 

South of Sicily is the 
small island of Malta (Fig. 
352), which, like Gibraltar, 
belongs to Great Britain, 
and is strongly fortified. 

Review Questions. — 

(1) In what respects is Italy's 
position favorable? (2) Wliat 
about the size of tlie peninsula? 
(3) Tell about the origin of the 
people. (4) Tell about the gov- 
ernment. (5) What are the 
principal features of the physiog- 
raphy ? (6) What factors equal- 
ize the temperature ? (7) Tell 
about the rainfall. (8) What crops are raised ? (9) Of what value is irrigation ? 
(10) What conditions especially favor it in the Po Valley? (11) Name the lead- 
ing agricultural products. (12) What mineral products come from Italy? 
(13) What other raw products? (14) What about manufacturing? (15) Write 
from memory a brief description of Naples and vicinity, including Vesuvius and 
Pompeii. (16) Give the reasons for the location of Rome. (17) What changes 
have occurred since the days of the Roman Empire? (18) Tell the principal 
facts about each of the following cities : (a) Palermo, (6) Florence, (c) Milan, 
(d) Turin, (e) Genoa, (/) Venice. (19) Tell about San Marino and ]\lalta. 

(1) Why should Italy have been relatively much more important in former 
times than now ? (2) What colonies has Italy in eastern Africa ? Suggest reasons 
why Italy has so few colonies. (3) What must have been the influence upon Genoa 
and Venice of the discovery of the ocean route to India? Why? (4) AVhat must 
have been the influence of the opening of the Suez Canal? Why? (.5) Would 
you expect that Italy would have a large navy ? Find out how her navy ranks 
with those of the other five Great Powers ; with that of the United States. 
(6) Mention advantages and disadvantages of life in Venice. (7) Mention some of 
the uses of sulphur. (8) What reasons can you give for the peculiar occupations 
taken up by Italian immigrants in this country? (9) Makea collection of the dif- 
ferent famous pictures of the Madonna. (10) Find out about the Catacombs of 
Rome ; the Roads ; the Aqueducts. (11) Find out about some of the ancient 
Romans and Roman customs. (12) Ask some lawyer to tell you what influence 
Roman law has had upon our own law. (13) Find some facts about Csesar, 
Cicero, and Dante. 
2b 



XI. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 

Map Questions (Fig. 374). — (1) Compare Austria-Hungary with Germany 
in area. (2) Compare the two countries in population. (3) Compare the two 
in number of large cities. In which, therefore, would you expect to find most 
development ? (4) About what proportion of the boundary is formed by water ? 
(5) What countries border this empii-e? (6) What portions are mountainous? 
(7) What would you say about the variety of climate ? (8) What sections do not 
belona; to the Danube basin ? 



Physiography and Climate. — A large proportion of the boundary 
line of Austria-Hungary is determined by mountain ranges. Point 

out these ranges. Notice 



that the Russian boundary 
extends across an open 
plain. This plain is Aus- 
tria's share of Poland, a 
kingdom which once ex- 
tended from the Baltic Sea 
to the Carpathian Moun- 
tains. Poland was con- 
quered and divided between 
Austria, Prussia, and Rus- 
sia, Austria receiving the 
smallest share and Russia 
the largest. 

Austria- Hungary is one 
of the most mountainous 
countries in Europe. It 
includes the eastern half of 
the Alps (Fig. 388), besides 
several other ranges. These 
mountains together form a circle enclosing a broad plain (Fig. 389), 
through which the Danube River flows. At two points this circle 
is completely broken : once near Vienna, where the Danube enters 
the great Hungarian plain (Fig. 374), and again on the southeastern 
boundary, where the river leaves the plain. 

370 




Fig. 388. 
A street in a small Alpiue village of western Austria 



AU STRIA-HUN GABT 371 

The Danube Valley is the great trade route of Austria-Hungary, since 
it offers the best passageway through the mountains. The fact that the 
river is navigable from Germany to its mouth adds greatly to the value of 
this route. 

Transportation is all the more confined to the river route because of 
the peculiar coast line of Austria-Hungary. Although the country is next 
in size to Russia among European nations, it has only a small amount of 
coast. Estimate its length. There are numerous harbors, to be sure, but 
they are difficult of access from the interior, because of the rugged moun- 
tains that rise from the very seashore. At only two points on the Adriatic 
can good harbors be reached from the Danube lowlands without difficulty. 
What cities are located at these points ? 

In so moimtainous a country there is naturally much variation both in 




Fig. 389. 
The Danube where it flows through the Hungarian plain. 

rainfall and temperature. Everywhere except on the higher mountains, 
however, the temperature is favorable for the growth of grains and other 
crops of temperate latitudes. That is, the summers are warm and the 
■winters are cold ; but the extremes are much greater than in England. 
Why ? The rainfall of the lowlands, which averages little over twenty 
inches, is barely sufficient for agriculture, and the plains of Hungary are 
subject to serious drought in summer. 

People and Government. — Such a rugged surface, witli many en- 
closed valleys, separates the people and favors the development of 
very different customs amongst the inhabitants of different sections. 
Moreover, the ease of approach from the north and east has led 
to repeated invasions from these directions. The result has been 
that the empire of Austria-Hungary is a mixture of many peoples. 
Germanic people, who form about a fourth of the entire popula- 
tion, are most numerous in Austria ; while the Magyars, a race allied 
to the Mongolian, form nearly half the population of Hungary ; 
but races related to the Slavs of Russia are more numerous than 



372 



EUBOPE 



either of the other groups. There are, in addition, large numbers 
allied to the Italians and other peoples (Fig. 390). German is the 
official language and is spoken by the educated classes. 



There are at least a dozen languages in the empire, and often two or 
three are spoken in a single town. To be sure, a similar statement might 
be made in regard to the United States, for we certainly have a great 
variety of languages. But no matter from what part of the earth our 

citizens have come, they 
have, in most cases, greatly 
modified their former cus- 
toms and have become genu- 
ine Americans in spirit. The 
principal exception are the 
Chinamen, who, instead of 
identifying themselves with 
us, remain Chinamen as long 
as they live. 

The many distinct peo- 
ples of Austria-Hungary re- 
semble the Chinamen in their 
tendency to remain apart. 
They are not only dissimilar 
in religion, ambitions, and 
customs, but their interests 
are often conflicting; and 
they are jealous and suspi- 
cious of, and often hostile to, 
one another. 

It has been a difficult 
matter to bring these peo- 
ple under a common rule. 
Nevertheless, in 1867, the 
Austrian Empire and the 
kingdom of Hungary were united under Emperor Joseph to form 
the empire of Austria-Hungary. Each of the countries preserves its 
own constitution, makes its own laws, and is independent of the 
other in many resj)ects, as we found to be the case in Norway and 
Sweden (p. 327). But they work together in matters of common 
interest, such as the army and navy, foreign affairs, and finance. 

Natural Resources. — Many of the mountain slopes are forest- 
covered, and in the remoter parts wild animals are still found. 




Fig. 390. 
A Gypsy family and hut in Austria-Hungary. 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 



373 



Since nearly one-third of the empire is wooded, lumber forms one 
of the important resources of the country. 

Where the woods have been cleared away, there are pastures for 
sheep and goats. Cattle are also raised, especially on the lowlands. 

Near the Adriatic and in the warmer valleys there are many 
vineyards ; and the mulberry is raised for the silk- worm, as in 
Italy (p. 363) and southern France (p. 315). Flax, hemp, corn, 
sugar beets, and tobacco are other important crops. But the grains, 
especially wheat, rye, barley, and oats, are the staple agricultural 
products of both Austria and Hungary. The broad plains of the 




Fig. 391. 
The Parliament building at Vienna. 



Danube (Fig. 389) form one of the leading wheat-producing regions 
of Europe. A large amount of this grain is exported, since the 
people, like the Germans, live much upon rye bread. 

There is much mineral wealth in the mountains, including deposits of 
salt, gold, silver, lead, mercury, and copper. The Hungarian opal is 
celebrated for its beauty ; and the excellent quality of the clays has made 
possible the manufacture of fine porcelain ware. The mineral quartz 
supplies the material for the Bohemian glass blowers, who make some of 
the finest ware in the world. 

Iron is widely distributed and Austria-Hungary ranks third 
among the coal-producing countries of Europe (Fig. 305). Some of 
the best deposits are in the northwest, near Prague, which explains 
why that city is extensively engaged in iron manufacturing. 

Manufacturing and Commerce. — Austria-Hungary does not manu- 
facture nearly so much as Great Britain, Germany, or France. Owing 



374 



EUROPE 



partly to the poor facilities for commerce, and partly to lack of education 
and common interests among the people, there has been far less develop- 
ment of manufacturing than might be expected. 

Much of the manufacturing is still done either by hand or by very 
simple machines. But there has been great progress in recent years, and 
numerous cotton, woollen, flour, and paper mills, iron manufactories, and 
beet-sugar refineries have been set up. There is also silk weaving. The 
chief manufacturing region is in the northwest, next to Germany, while 
the principal agricultural section is in the central and eastern parts. 




Fig. :v.r2. 

Cut showing a castle in Austria, a little village at the base of the hill, and a mill at the left. 
Notice the thick walls, formerly of use to protect the castle from attack. 

There is an extensive internal commerce along the rivers and the rail- 
ways; but, owing to the limited coast line, ocean commerce is much less 
developed than in other large European nations. 

The most natural trade route leads either down the Danube into the 
Black Sea or else westward into Germany, and thence down the Rhine 
Valley. Why in these directions ? Less than one-third of the foreign 
shipping goes by way of Trieste. This means that the greater part of the 
foreign trade of the empire is carried on through foreign ports. What dis- 
advantages do you see in that fact ? Trace the chief routes. 

Principal Cities. — While there are many small cities in this em- 
pire, there are surprisingly few large ones. The two largest, Vienna, 
the capital of Austria, and Budapest, the capital of Hungary, are 
on the Danube River and not on the seacoast. Suggest reasons. 

Vienna, which is larger than Philadelphia, is the greatest city in 
Austria-Hungary and the fourth largest in Europe. The reason for 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 375 

its size is found first of all in its location, on a large river in the cen- 
tral part of Europe. Moreover, it is situated at an opening between 
mountains, through which, from the earliest times, the best routes 
have passed from western Europe to Asia, and from northern Europe 
to the Mediterranean. The railways which lead from St. Peters- 
burg to Rome, and from Berlin and Paris to Constantinople, converge 
toward this point, making the city a great railway and trade centre. 
Budapest, consisting of two towns (Buda and Pest) on opposite 
banks of the Danube, is the seat of the Hungarian government and 
the home of the emperor for a part of each year. The city is in the 
midst of the great wheat-raising plains of the Danube, and, like 
Odessa on the Black Sea, is engaged in flour manufacture and grain 
shipment. 

Prague, the third city of Austria-Hungary, is situated on the navigable 
Elbe, which since early times has been an important trade route. Located 
in the midst of a rich mineral region, it is a noted manufacturing centre. 
Trieste, a city about the size of Rochester, New York, is the largest Aus- 
trian seaport. Although separated from the main part of the country by 
mountain ranges, it is connected with the interior by a railway. Even as 
far back as the time of the Romans, the pass which the railway takes in 
crossing the mountains was followed as the route of entrance to the Dan- 
ube Valley. Fiume, southeast of Trieste, has an excellent harbor. 

Small Countries. — On the boundary between Austria and Switzerland 
is Liechtenstein, a very small independent country united with Austria-Hun- 
gary by a customs treaty. Two other countries, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 
formerly parts of Turkey, are now practically a part of Austria-Hungary, 
and are therefore not marked separately on our maps. They include the 
mountainous land northwest of Montenegro and Servia. 

Review Questions. — (1) Tell about the physiography of Austria-Hungary. 
(2) Tell about the climate. (3) What is the condition of the people ? (4) What 
about the government ? (5) Name the principal raw products. (6) What is the 
condition of manufacturing? (7) What about the commerce? (8) Give reasons 
for the location of Vienna. (9) Tell about the following cities : (a) Budapest, 
(b) Prague, (c) Trieste, {d) Fiume. (10) What is said about small countries ? 

Suggestions. — (1) How must the construction of tunnels through the Alps 
have affected Austria-Hungary? (2) What would you say as to the relative im- 
portance of the Danube and Rhine rivers? (3) Find some Bohemian glass to see 
hovs^ beautiful it is. (4) In an atlas look up Austria-Hungary to find the portions 
which are called Tyrol, Moravia, Bohemia, and Transylvania. (5) Look up some 
facts about the history of Poland. (6) Suggest reasons for the absence of Aus- 
trian colonies. (7) Find out something about the Triple Alliance. (8) Read 
about the influence of Emperor Francis Joseph in holding the different parts of 
the empire together. (9) Find out something about Kossuth. 



XII. THE BALKAN PENINSULA 




Map Questions (Fig. 374). — (1) "What countries border Eouniania? 
(2) Name the countries south of the Danube. (3) What does the map tell you 
about the surface of each ? (i) "What may you expect about the variations in cli- 
mate on this peninsula? ^^"liy? About the rainfall? Why? (.5) Compare the 
number of large cities with the number in Germany and Italy. What inferences 
do you draw concerning the condition of the people? (6) Compare the area of 
Turke}' in Europe with that of your own state. 

Physiography and Climate. — This double-pointed peninsula is 
bounded on one side l)y the Adriatic and ^Mediterranean seas, on the 

other by the ^gean and 
Black seas. It is unlike 
other European peninsulas 
in having a very long 
land boundary. Trace it. 
Throughout almost its en- 
tire extent the surface is 
mountainous, which offers 
an explanation of the large 
number of separate coun- 
tries on the peninsula. 
How ? Many of the valleys are suitable to agriculture, the most 
extensive being the plains of the Danube in Roumania and Bulgaria. 
The climate varies greatly from mountain to valley and from 
interior to seashore. Along the southern coast the winters are 
mild, as elsewhere near the Mediterranean ; but in the northeast, 
near Russia, hot summers are followed by cold winters, when icy 
Avinds sweep down from the Russian steppes, and the Danube 
freezes over. 

In so mountainous a land there is also much variation in rainfall. 
On the western slopes, for example near the shores of the Adriatic, 
there is an abundance of rain ; but on the east coast and in the 
interior Yalleys, especially in Greece, there is so little rain that agri- 
culture depends upon irrigation. Why is this true of Greece par- 
ticularly? (p. 279). 

376 



Fig. :;:•:.. 
A view in Bulcjaria. showing its rusrsred surface. 



SEBVIA, BOUMAJSriA, AND BULGABIA 



37T 




Fig. 394. 
A Roumanian peasant. 



People. — Tlie eastern point of tlie Balkan Peninsula comes so close to 
Asia tliat it lias been called a " bridge " between Europe and Asia. At 
each of two points, the Dardanelles and the 
Bosporus, the continents are separated only by 
a narrow strait, a barrier so slight that the 
animals and plants of the country belong to both 
European and Asiatic species. This region has 
also been a bridge for the passage of many 
XDeojDles. Romans, various tribes of Slavs, and 
finally the Mohammedan Turks from Asia have 
brought the peninsula under their dominion. 
T^^aerever the Turks went they brought ruin ; 
and for four centuries, while the rest of Europe 
was advancing, they held this region in sub- 
jection and prevented progress. During the 
nineteenth century, however, many of its people 
have thrown off the Turkish yoke, so that Turkey 
in Europe is now less than one-quarter as large 
as it was a hundred years ago. jSTevertheless, 
the effects of long Turkish misgovernment are clearly seen throughout 
the entire peninsula. 

Aside from Roumania, five nations now occupy tlie Balkan penin- 
sula : Montenegro, Servia, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire or Turkey, 

and Greece ; and two others, Bosnia 
and Herzegovina, are under control 
of Austria-Hungary (p. 375). 

Montenegro. — This tiny principality, 
which is smaller than the state of Con- 
necticut, has raaintained its independ- 
ence largely because of its situation 
among the mountains. The country is 
of slight importance ; its soil is so poor 
that there is little agriculture ; there is 
less manufacturing, and not a single rail- 
waj^. The principal occupation is cattle 
raising. 

Servia. — Bordering on southern 
Hungary, Servia shares some of the 
advantages of that country, including 
navigation of the Danube. Since 
much of its surface is rugged and 
heavily forested only a small portion 
is cultivated. Anioiio- the leading" 




Fig. 395. 

A Turkish lady, at Constantinople, in 
street dress. 



378 EUROPE 

products are corn, wheat, and other grains, reminding us of Hungary. 
There is also much fruit raising, particularly that of grapes and 
plums, which, when dried, are sold as raisins and prunes. Many 
cattle, sheep, and pigs are raised for export, the pigs being allowed 
to roam in the oak and beech forests. Why there ? 

The resources of Servia are' only partially developed. For 
example, although coal, iron, lead, silver, and other metals are known 
to exist, there is very little mining and not much manufacturing. 
It will require more time to recover from the centuries of Turkish 
misrule. 

The capital of the kingdom is Belgrade, a city finely situated 
upon the Danube. 

Roumania and Bulgaria. — These two countries have much in 
common. Although the Danube separates them for a long distance, 
they together control its lower course. This is a fact of much 
importance to Austria-Hungary. Why ? Broad plains suited to 
agriculture border the Danube in both countries, though the plains 
are far more extensive in Roumania than in Bulgaria. Naturally, 
therefore, there is much farming. While each of these kingdoms has 
been freed from Turkish rule, Bulgaria is still tributary to that 
country ; that is, although in most respects independent and self- 
governing, it is obliged to pay an annual tribute in money to Turkey. 

In both countries wheat and other grains are among the chief 
crops. But the warmer climate of Bulgaria, south of the Balkan 
Mountains, permits the culture of products that cannot be raised 
extensively in Roumania ; for example, the mulberry for silk, and 
roses for the valuable perfume, attar of roses. Many sheep as well 
as other live stock are raised in each country ; in fact, herding is 
almost the sole industry on the barren steppes of eastern Roumania. 
There are large tracts of forest in each, but there is more in Bul- 
garia, owing to its rugged surface, than in Roumania. Each coun- 
try has valuable mineral deposits ; but, as in Servia, there is little 
mining. Why ? Nor is there much manufacturing, except such 
hand work as the manufacture of Turkish rugs. 

With so slight development of the resources, there are few large 
cities. By far the largest is Buchakest, the capital of Roumania. 
Find the capital of Bulgaria. 

Turkey in Europe. — The Turks, who are Mohammedans, are 
controlled by ideas very unlike those of other Europeans. They 
are unprogressive and inclined to grant no rights to Christians, many 



TURKEY 



379 









of whom still live in Turkey. Their ruler or Sultan has absolute 
power, which he exercises with little conscience, and the government 
is the worst in Europe. 

Not only are the mass of Turks in ignorance and poverty, but they 
are not encouraged to develop the resources of their land. There are 
valuable mineral deposits, practically unworked ; the great forest tracts 
have been nearly destroyed ; and broad areas of farm land are cultivated 
by the use of oxen and 

Bluck Sea 



tame buffaloes, and by the 
crude methods of early 
centuries. Among the prin- 
cipal crops are wheat, corn, 
flax, hemp, and tobacco. 
Figs, aud grapes for raisins, 
are also raised. Cattle and 
sheep are numerous. 

As in other slightly 
developed states, there is 
little production beyond 
raw materials ; and while 
other nations in Europe 
have rapidly developed in 
manufacturing, Turkey pro- 
duces chiefly hand-made 
goods. Among the latter 
are the famous Turkish rugs, and some very beautiful articles in leather 
and metal, showing that the Turks have much artistic skill. With so 
little industry there is naturally almost no means of transportation ; in 
fact, the roads are everywhere bad, and railways are almost lacking. 

Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, has been 
famous for many centuries. Being situated on the Bosporus, where 
the beautiful, river-like outlet of the Black Sea passes through a 
valley in the low plateau, it commands the channel through which 
the commerce of the Black Sea must pass. This is a natural site 
for a city ; for in addition to its location on this water route, it 
is the point where the crossing can best be made from Europe to 
Asia, The presence of a harbor on the European side — a small 
bay at the river mouth called the " Golden Horn " — and the fact 
that the founders were Europeans trading in Asia, rather than 
Asiatics trading in Europe, are reasons why a large city has groAvn 
on the European and not on the Asiatic side. 

Greece. — The southern end of the Balkan peninsula is occupied 
by Greece. Owing to the many short mountain ranges extending in 



Sea of 
Marrruora 



Fig. 396. 
Map showing the location of Constantinople. 



380 



EUROPE 




different directions, the coast line is irregular, with numerous penin- 
sulas, islands, deep bays, and fine harbors, formed by the sinking of 
the irregular land. The influence of the Mediterranean causes a 
warm, pleasant climate, as in southern Italy; and the rainfall, which 
is moderate in winter, is so light in summer that irrigation is neces- 
sary for agriculture. The 
surface is so rough and 
rocky that large sections 
are unfit for farming. 

It was in this small 
peninsula, under what to 
our eyes appear to be very 
unfavorable conditions, 
that the marvellous civili- 
zation of ancient Hellas, 
or Greece, was developed 
But these conditions really 
had the tendency to de- 
velop strong intellectual 
powers and brave men. 
The sea and mountains 
protected the races from invasion, and the many fine harbors and 
inlets permitted constant intercourse by water. By the commerce 
which thus arose tlie Greeks became so acquainted with the sea that 
they were almost as much at home upon it as upon the land. 

In all parts of the world it has been under such conditions as these 
that strong races have been developed. It was true in Scandinavia, in the 
British Isles, and in the Spanish and Italian peninsulas. It is also true in 
the Japanese Islands, the home of the most highly developed Asiatics. 

Because of their ability to navigate the inland seas, the European 
Greeks, in very early times, carried on constant communication with the 
people from whom they had separated, and who still dwelt opposite them, 
on the coast of- Asia. The arts and customs of their mother country they 
improved upon, and in time became the greatest power in the then known 
world. They developed an art and a civilization Avhich, with all our 
advancement, we have not been able to excel. They also became explorers, 
and cruised about the entire shores of the Mediterranean at a time when 
most of Europe was occupied by savages or barbarians. They entered 
into trade relations with their neighbors, taught them Greek arts, and 
established many colonies. Greek arts and literature, we should note, 
decayed with the loss of freedom in the Greek cities which were conquered 
by barbarians from the north. 



Fig. 397. 

St. Sophia, a beautiful church in Constantinople now 
used as a Mohammedan mosque. This illustrates 
the Byzantine style of architecture — Byzantium 
having been the early name of Constantinople. 



GREECE 



381 



Through colonies in the Italian peninsula, and also through the immi- 
gration of individual Greeks, this people exerted a strong influence upon 
the Romans. Rome finally conquered Greece, although much of Roman 
civilization, and therefore the civilization of Europe, was due to Greek 
thought. After the decline of the Roman 
Empire other northern peoples devastated 
Greece, and finally the Turks entered and 
carried ruin to this as to other parts of the 
Balkan peninsula. Greece is now indepen- 
dent and is a limited monarchy. 

In this little country there are few 
natural resources. There is no coal, and 
therefore little manufacturing. There is 
some mining, as of lead and zinc ; but the 
principal occupations are herding and agri- 
culture. Large numbers of sheep and goats 
are raised ; and the chief farm products are 
grain, tobacco, olives, and fruits. Among 
the latter is the small variety of grape, 
known as the currant. These, together 
with raisin grapes, are cultivated in large 
quantities on the steep hillsides and, after 
being gathered, are dried in the warm, dry, 
summer air. 

The neighborhood of the sea has led the Greeks to continue their sea- 
faring life, and they still carry on an extensive foreign trade. Many are 
also engaged in. fisheries, and in securing bath sponges from the shallow 
sea bottom among the Greek islands. 




Fig. 398. 
A Greek peasant costume. 



Athens, the capital and most important city, with about one 
hundred thousand inhabitants, is situated inland six miles from 




Fig. 399. 
A view of the Acropolis at Athens. The city lies back of the hill. 



382 EUROPE 

its port, PiK^us. The principal streets of the present city are 
quite modern, but ruins of the ancient Athens are still numerous. 
The most noted buildings, and some of the finest temples of ancient 
Greece, stood upon the Acropolis (Fig. 399), a level-topped rocky 
hill with precipitous sides. This remarkable stronghold was the 
natural centre for settlements in the surrounding plain. 

Islands near Greece. — The many islands in the neighborhood of Greece 
are either mountain crests or else volcanic cones. Occasionally we heard 
of an earthquake shock in this island region or archipelago, showing that the 
mountains are still growing. The largest island near Greece, and the last 
to be separated from Turkey (1898), is Crete (Fig. 352), which, like the 
smaller islands, is under the control of the Grecian government and 
inhabited mainly by Greeks. The inhabitants are engaged in industries 
that are the same as in Greece itself. 

Review Questions. — (1) Describe the physiography of the Balkan penin- 
sula. (2) Tell about the climate. (3) State some of the main facts in its history. 
(4) Name the countries of the peninsula. (5) What can you say about Monte- 
negro? (6) Tell about Servia. (7) In what respects do Bulgaria and Roumania 
resemble each other? (8) Mention soune differences. (9) Locate the capitals. 
(10) Tell about Turkey in Europe : character of the people ; government ; resources ; 
manufacturing. (11) V^Tiat special reasons are there for a large city at Constan- 
tinople? (12) Describe Greece: its physiography; climate; reasons for former 
importance ; influence ; reasons for decline ; present condition ; resources. (13) Tell 
about Athens. (14) What can you teU about the islands near Greece? 

Suggestions. — (1) What reasons can you suggest for the fact that these 
eastern countries are in a constant state of unrest ? (2) Turkey is occasionally 
referred to as the " sick man of Europe." Why ? (3) How was Greece well situated 
for the trade of the ancient world? (4) Learn some facts about Homer, Plato, and 
other noted Greeks. (5) Read some of the ancient Greek myths. (6) Read about 
the defence of the Pass of Thermopylae. (7) What i-easons can you suggest for 
the fact that ancient Greece was divided into several independent states, not unlike 
our own, but lacking a federal union ? 

REVIEW OF EUROPE AND COMPARISON WITH NORTH AMERICA 

For area, population, etc., see Appendix 

(1) Compare the climate of western Europe with that of the west coast of 
North America (p. 279). (2) Make the same comparison for the east coast of 
North America (p. 279). (3) What European countries were covered either wholly 
or partly by an ice sheet in the Glacial Period? (Fig. 306). (4) Is the coast line 
of Europe more or less irregular than that of North America ? Which continent 
has the advantage in this respect? How is it an advantage? (5) Name and 
locate the principal mountain ranges in each continent. Which continent has the 
advantage as to the direction of the ranges ? Why? (p. 280). (6) Name and locate 
the principal rivers in each continent. Which are the largest ? (7) Draw an out- 
line map of Europe inserting the boundaries and names of the countries. (8) How 



BEVIEW OF EUROPE 383 

do our larger Western states compare in area with France and Germany? In popu- 
lation ? (9) Which are the two or three most progressive countries ? Give reasons. 
(10) What is the prevailing kind of government in Europe? In North America? 
How do you account for the difference? (11) Which European country has, per- 
haps, the best location for world commerce? Why? (12) Which is best situated 
for continental commerce? Why? (p. 343.) (13) Which country of North Amer- 
ica has the most favorable position for trade ? How ? (14) Compare the five 
largest European cities with the five largest in North America. (15) State the 
main advantages of the position of each. (16) Name and locate the five largest 
seaports of Europe (Fig. 352). (17) How do they compare in population with 
New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, and San Francisco ? (IS) Name and 
locate the five largest interior cities and compare their population with that of 
Chicago, St. Louis, Cleveland, Buffalo, and Cincinnati. (19) What cities of Europe 
and North America are near the 46th parallel of latitude ? The 50th ? The 60th ? 
(20) Name some agricultural products common to both Europe and the United 
States ? (21) Name others that are found in the United States but not in Europe. 
Why this difference ? (22) In what countries of Europe is silk produced ? Why 
do we not raise silk-worms? (p. 315). (23) In what countries are sugar beets 
produced extensively? (24) In what countries is most lumber obtained? 

(25) Make a list of the European countries which have extensive coal deposits. 

(26) Which countries 'have little or none ? What is the effect on the industries in 
each case ? (27) Which countries have little or no mining ? (28) Which countries 
have important manufacturing industries? Which have very little? Give the 
reasons for this difference. (29) With which group would the United States be 
classed with regard to mining and manufacturing? (30) Which of the European 
nationalities have you seen on our streets ? (31) Find in the Statesman's Year- 
book or elsewhere, the number of men necessary for the standing armies of each of 
the six Great Powers. How do these armies compare in size with the standing 
army of the United States ? (32) Write a paper stating some of the advantages 
that we enjoy over European countries. (33) State some of the advantages that 
they enjoy over us. (35) Which one of the European countries would you prefer 
to visit? Why? 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 




Fig. 400. 





Fig. 401. 
A Chinese maudarin in his official dress. 



Fig. 402. 

A Yakoiit woman from the cold tun- 
dra region of Siberia. 




Cities with over 1,000,000 : Cauton 

Cities with 500,000 to 1,000,000; Calcutta 
Cities with 200,000 to 500,000; . Manila 

Smaller Places; . Jerusalem 

Capitals with less thau 200,000: Wlaskat 
Capitals of Countries: ® Other Places; • 



Fig. 403. 
Map Questions.— (1) Compare the greatest length and breadth of Asia with that of 
North America (Fig. 512) . (2) Compare its area with that of other continents. {For Areas, 
see Appendix.) (3) Where are the mountains; (4) the plains? (5) Draw an outline map of 
Asia, adding the names and boundaries of the countries. (6) Find four large inland seas 
and lakes. Which have no outlets ? (7) Find the area of China, India, and Siberia. About 




how many times as large as Pennsylvania is each? (8) What facts concerning the climate 
do you infer from the map? (9) What does the general absence of railways tell about 
the development of the people? In what part has there pi'obably been most progress? 
(10) Name some of the large islands near Asia. Name some of the largest islands between 
Asia aud Australia (Fig. 4.61) . 




TheMN.Co.Buffalo, tiger 



ELEPHANT 



Fig. 404. 
Some of the animals of Asia. 




Fig. i05. 
The volcano of Fujiyama in Japan. 




Fig. 406. 
The gorge of the Yangtse-kiansr in China. 



i: JL ^ ^ "'=' 




mt 



/-^d6CzUi>-^ '^^' 





Fig. 408. 
Native humi^ed cattle used as draught-animals iu Burma. 




'^,f?'-^d^ 



Fig. 409. 
Spinning as done in Palestine and other parts of Turkey. 



.<> 



Paet Y 

ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA AND ISLAND 



h GROUPS 



^ 



I. ASIA 

Size and Position. — Asia, the largest of the continents, includes 
almost one-third of the land of the globe. Its immense size is shown 
by the fact that it reaches from near the equator to a point halfway 
between the Arctic Circle and the North Pole. How many degrees 
is that ? How many miles ? It is six thousand miles from the 
Mediterranean Sea to Bering Straits ; and so many degrees of 
longitude are included in Asia that, according to our plan for stand- 
ard time, one would need to change his watch ten different times in 
going from one extreme to the other. How many changes are neces- 
sary in crossing the United States ? (Fig. 38) 

This great land mass, which reaches to within fifty miles of North 
America, is united to Africa by the Isthmus of Suez, while for a long 
distance the two continents are separated only by the narrow Red Sea. 
What is its connection with Europe ? Why are the two often called 
Eurasia ? (p. 275.) In what zones does Asia lie ? Is the same true of 
any other continent ? 

Physiography and Climate. (Fig. 407.) — Asia resembles Europe 
in the irregularity of its mountains. While many of them extend 
east and west, there are others running nearly north and south. 
Name some of each. The islands and peninsulas are due to uplift 
of the earth's crust, while the seas which they enclose occupy depres- 
sions between the uplifted parts. Since the mountain growth has 
not entirely ceased, many of the islands are still slowly rising ; and, 
as the rocks move and break, earthquake shocks are common, some 
of them being terribly destructive. There are also many volcanoes 
2 c 385 



886 ASIA 

(Fig. 405) ; in fact, the islands oft' eastern and southeastern Asia 
form the most active volcanic and earthquake region in the world. 

Although northern and western Asia is a vast plain, so much of the 
continent is mountainous that more than one-twelfth of the surface has an 
elevation above 10,000 feet. Here are found the Himalayas (meaning 
abode of snow), of which the loftiest peak, Mt. Everest (29,000 feet), is 
the highest in the world. Locate it. And here, too, are other ranges with 
peaks rising above valleys themselves 11,000 feet above sea level, or higher 
than most mountains. Between the mountains are tabledands, like that 
of Tibet, the elevation of which is from 10,000 to 15,000 feet, or in places 
as high as the loftiest peaks of the Alps. 

Much of central Asia is so arid that some of the rivers from the moun- 
tains end in the desert sands, Avhich are often heaped by the wind into 
low hills or dunes. But from the margin of the great central highland 
large rivers flow north, south, and east to the sea. On an outline map of 




;. 410. 
A tropical scene iu a village in Ceylon. 

Asia draw heavy lines to show the chief mountain chains, and then add 
the larger rivers with their names. Fed by the rains, snows, and melting 
glaciers of the mountains, these streams have a great volume of water and 
bear immense quantities of sediment, which they spread out over their 
broad flood plains or build into deltas in the sea. In the east and south 
these fertile, river-made plains are valuable for agriculture, and are the 
seats of the densest populations in the whole world. 

Many of the rivers are deep and navigable (Fig.' 406) ; yet some of the 
largest lose much of their value for transportation because they flow north- 
ward over the cold plains of Siberia. This reminds us of the rivers of 
northern Canada, which also flow into the Arctic, and are therefore frozen 
during a large part of the year. 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 



387 



In so vast a land, with such differences in erevation, there are, 
naturall}^ many different climates. Tropical heat is found in south- 
ern Asia, with dense forests in the belt of calms (Fig. 410), and in 
those places where ocean winds blow over the land ; but where 
winds from the ocean cannot come, there are broad deserts. Upon 
the mountain "slopes and in the more northern latitudes, the climate 
is either temperate or frigid, as in North America and Europe. 

For example, the climate about Peking resembles that of northeastern 
United States ; and the plains of central Siberia resemble in climate the 
plains of Minnesota and Dakota, and produce the same crops. Such a 
climate, with warm summers and very cold winters, is called continental; 
and since Asia is the largest continent, the continental climate is best 
developed there. Thus where the Arctic Circle crosses the Lena Eiver, 
the average temperature is 60° in July and 60° below zero in January, a 
range of 120° between summer and winter. This is the lowest winter 
temperature known in the world, and this point is therefore called the 
cold pole of the earth. 

Plants and Animals. — The cold northern part of Siberia, like 
northern Europe and America, is a vast expanse of froxen ground, 
called tundra. Toward the south the tundra grades into the forest, 
low, stunted trees being fol- 
lowed by true forests of ever- 
greens, birches, poplars, etc. 
Farther south, where the rain- 
fall is light and the evaporation 
rapid because of the higher 
temperature, the soil is so dry 
in summer that the forests dis- 
appear. These steppes are cov- 
ered with luxuriant grass in 
the north, but farther south 
they grade into the desert. 
Since northern Asia is really a 
continuation of Europe, the wild 
plants and animals, as well as the 
farm products, resemble those 
of Europe. 

In southern Asia, on the other hand, from Arabia to China, the 
plants and animals resemble those of Africa rather than those of 
Europe and northern Asia. One reason for this is that southern 




Fig. 411. 

The banyan, or Indian fig tree, from whose 
lower branches shoots descend and take 
root — common in Ceylon and other i^arts 
of southern Asia. 



388 



ASIA 



Asia has a tropical climate like Africa ; another is that a mountain 
and desert barrier separates northern from southern Asia. Trace this 
barrier on Figure 407, As in Africa the arid portion, including 
Arabia, Persia, and central Asia, is the home of the camel (Fig. 
404) and ostrich (Fig. 442), while the elephant and rhinoceros (Fig. 
404) live on the savannas and in the tropical jungles. Southern 
Asia is also the home of the fierce tiger and numerous species of 
monkeys and apes (Fig. 404). 

The extent to which the Asiatic people have employed animals in their 
service is indicated by the following facts. On the frozen tundras, where 
none of the other large domesticated animals thrive, the reindeer not only 

supplies milk, meat, and 
hides, but is also used as 
a work animal. The camel, 
whose original home seems 
to have been Asia, makes 
human habitation possible in 
the desert (Figs. 404 and 420). 
Elephants are domesticated 
and made to work in the dense 
tropical forest (Figs. 412 and 
428) ; and the buffalo is used 
as a work animal in hot, 
damp lands where horses find 
the climate trying. Among 
the lofty plateaus and moun- 
tains, where the air is so 
rarefied and the slopes so 
steep that other work ani- 
mals cannot be used, the yak is domesticated. Upon the steppes, where 
herds of cattle, sheep, and goats are kept, the horse is so necessary to 
the herder that the men almost live in the saddle. Indeed, the word 
Cossack, applied to Russians who dwell on the steppes, means horseman. 

People. — Early progress toward civilization was made possible in 
Asia largely because certain portions were so favorably situated. 
The flood plains of the Euphrates and of the Indian and Chinese 
rivers had a fertile soil and an abundance of water for irrigation. 
They were, moreover, protected from invasion by ocean, desert, and 
mountain barriers, and the inhabitants could therefore cultivate the 
arts of peace. Among the shut-in valleys of the lofty mountains, 
also, were centres where development was possible because so pro- 
tected from wandering hordes. 




Fig. 412. 

An elephant in Ceylon drawing a cart loaded with 
cocoanuts. 



PEOPLE 



389 



Asiatic peoples, moving into Europe, carried the civilization of 
their old home vrith them, and in time advanced much beyond those 
whom they left behind. In fact, while Europeans have been pro- 
gressing the Asiatics have been standing still, or even falling back. 

It would be difficult to give all the reasons for this last fact, but there 
are three that are prominent. One is the very isolation which made the 
first development possible ; for the people were so cut off and separated 
geographically that they failed to learn from others, as those Europeans 
who dwelt along the Mediterranean were able .to do. A second reason is 
that many Asiatics, like, for example, the Chinese, have felt that their 
civilization was the best, and have therefore refused to learu. A third 
reason is found in the wonderful 
development of navigation by 
Europeans, who have thereby 
learned many useful lessons from 
all jDarts of the world, acquired 
wealth, and founded distant colo- 
nies. The sea, formerly a pro- 
tection to many Asiatic peoples, 
has, in recent times, even been 
used as a highway of attack upon 
them. 

Where European civilization 
has been adopted, as in Japan 
and parts of India, rapid progress 
has followed. This indicates 
the possibilities of these people. 

More than half of the hu- 
man race live in Asia, two- 
thirds of them belonging to 
the yellow division (p. 243 ; 
remainder are mainly whites. 




Fig. 413. 
Japanese rain coats. 



also Figs. 401 and 402), while the 
But although there are more than 
eight hundred million human beings there, most of the continent 
is sparsely settled. The mountain slopes, the cold plateaus, the 
steppes, deserts, forests, and imndras support but few inhabitants 
(Fig. 400). Nearly seven-eighths of the people dwell near the 
coast, especially on the river flood plains and deltas of the south and 
east. There almost every foot of available land is cultivated, and 
soil is even transferred to boats on the rivers. 

Turkish or Ottoman Empire. — While Constantinople, the capital 
of the Turkish Empire, is in Europe, Turkey has ten times as much 
land in Asia as in Europe. 



390 ASIA 

Conditions in the Empire. — Turkey in Asia, although of little 
importance among nations at the present time, is of peculiar inter- 
est to us because of its historical associations. It is within its 
territory that many of the places mentioned in the Bible are located 
(Fig. 416) ; here also Christ was born, as well as the prophet Moham- 
med ; and it was from this centre that much of the ancient civiliza- 
tion spread along the shores of the Mediterranean. 

Much of Turkey in Asia is table-land, with short mountain ranges 
and extinct volcanoes, of- which Mt. Ararat is an example. Except 
along the coast of the Mediterranean and Black seas, where the 
wind brings vapor, there is little rainfall. The streams are usually 
short and shallow, and there are numerous salt lakes. Point out the 
two principal rivers (Fig. 403). 

Some of the mountain slopes are forested, but elsewhere the coun- 
try is open, and in places suited to herding and agriculture. In the 
valleys, wheat, grapes, olives, figs, oranges, and cotton are raised, 
usually by the aid of irrigation. Smyrna is the most important sea- 
port. Locate it. Find Trebizond. 

The inhabitants, though so near Europe, have not advanced as Euro- 
peans have. The valuable minerals are scarcely worked at all ; herding 
and farming are carried on in much the same way as in the time of Christ ; 
and there is practically no manufacturing except that done by hand (Fig. 
409). Some of this work, however, is very beautiful, as, for example, the 
Turkish rugs already mentioned (p. 379). 

The unfortunate history of the region furnishes an explanation of its 
lack of development. Asia Minor, the peninsula between the Mediter- 
ranean and Black seas, was the pathway for the ancient caravan trade 
between Europe and Asia. While this brought prosperity, it also led to 
many invasions. More than live centuries before Christ the country was 
conquered by the Persians; two centuries later it came under the control 
of the Greeks; and later still it became a part of the Roman Empire. 
After that, with the decline of the Eoman Empire, came invasions by 
wandering Turks, Tartars, and others. It was by this route that the 
Mohammedan Turks gained a foothold, in southwestern Europe, and by 
their occupation devastated the country. Notwithstanding Mohammedan 
persecution, many of the inhabitants still profess the Christian religion, 
although at great cost, as is proved by the recent terrible massacres of the 
Armenians. 

There are two parts of Turkey in Asia that merit special men- 
tion ; namely, the ITol^ Land, and the valley of the Euphrates and 
Tigris rivers, or Mesopotamia. 




Fig. 414. 
The river Jordan. 




Fig. 415. 
Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee. 




Fig. im. 



TURKISH EMPIRE 



391 



The Holy Land (Fig. 416). — This part of Turkey in Asia pos- 
sesses peculiar interest for us. Back of a straight coast, with no good 
harbors, lies a narrow coastal plain, beyond which are two low moun- 
tain ranges including between them the remarkable depression in 
which the Dead Sea is situated. While Hebron (Fig. 416) is about 
three thousand feet above sea level, the surface of the Dead Sea, a few 
miles to the east, is almost thirteen hundred feet below sea level, being 
the deepest depression on the lands of the world. Although fed by 
the river Jordan (Fig. 414), which flows out of a fresh-water lake, the 
Sea of Galilee (Fig. 415), the water of the Dead Sea is so dense from 
the salt it contains that a person cannot sink in it. The fact that it 
is salt shows that the climate is arid, for otherwise the depression 
would be tilled with water, and, by overflowing, the sea would soon 
become freshened. The Jordan Valley lies no farther south than 
southern Alabama ; yet since it is so low and enclosed, its climate is 
almost tropical. 

Before the coming of the Jews this region was divided into small 
couutries, often under the rule of their more advanced and powerful 
neighbors, the Egyptians. Then the Jews entered this ''promised land" 
and created a kingdom 
which attained its greatest 
power under Solomon. It 
was here that many of the 
events in the Old Testament 
occurred, including the ad- 
vance in religion from the 
belief in many gods to the 
acceptance of one all-power- 
ful God. Persians, Egyp- 
tians, and Romans later 
ruled over Palestine, and 
it was during the control 
of the latter people that 
Christ was born at Bethlehem. What events in the life of Christ can 
you mention that occurred at some of the places marked on the map ? 
(Fig. 416.) 

At that time, as we learn from the Bible, the region was highly 
developed. Wheat was raised upon the uplands, and olives, figs, and 
grapes in the valleys, while herds of sheep roamed over the plateaus and 
mountains. Recall events from the Bible that indicate these occupations. 
Palestine lay on the great caravan route which, leading from Egypt to the 
distant East, ran northward as far as Damascus (Fig. 403) in order to 
avoid the Syrian desert. Throngs of people, therefore, passed this way. 




Fig. 417. 
A part of Bethlehem. 



392 



ASIA 



Jerusalem (Fig. 418), the capital, was a great city, situated upon a lofty 
elevation that made it an important stronghold. 

The city is now visited by many Christians, and also by Mohammedan 
pilgrims who believe that Mohammed ascended to heaven there. Very 
little of importance is to be seen, for much of the country, once " flowing 
with milk and honey," is in ruins. Even the usual mode of travel is by 
mule or camel, as in olden times, although a short railway climbs the 
mountains from the seacoast, at Joppa, to Jerusalem, and another 
has been begun, following the old caravan route through Nazareth, past 
the Sea of Galilee, to Damascus. Trace these two lines. According to 
the scale (Fig. 484) what is the length of Palestine ? The breadth ? 




Fig. 418. 
A view in Jerusalem. 



Mesopotamia. — This region, including the fertile valleys of the 
Tigris and Euphrates rivers, has suffered the same fate as the rest of 
Turkey in Asia. Formerly a country of great resources, crossed by 
a network of irrigation canals, " a garden of the Lord," it has been 
devastated by the Arabs and Turks until it is now almost a waste. 
Babyloii and Nineveh, once the seats of a wonderful civilization, are 
now marked only by mounds of ruins. From these ruins records 
are at present being unearthed which promise to throw much light 
upon ancient history. 

Under such conditions there can be little commerce, though the 
Tigris is navigable with steamboats as far up as Bagdad. This 
city, situated on the caravan route to the east, was of much impor. 
tance in ancient times. There is still some trade between Europe 
and India alonsf this route. 



ARABIA 



393 




Arabia. — This peninsula is a plateau several thousand feet in 
elevation, with a fringe of mountains (Fig. 419), most prominent 
in the south and west. What waters border Arabia ? Since the 
coast line is wonderfully regular, there are few harbors and there- 
fore few coastal cities. Nevertheless, the enclosed seas favored the 
early development of navigation here as in the Mediterranean. 
Therefore in very early times Arabian ships carried on commerce 
with Africa, India, and even with eastern Asia. 

The climate is hot along the coast, but cool on the plateau and 
among the mountains. A great part of the interior is desert, and 
almost everywhere the 
rainfall is light. Why ? 
(p. 223.) What about 
large rivers ? Coffee is 
raised in the southwest, 
near Mocha; the date palm 
flourishes in many places; 
and fruits and vegetables 
are produced in many of 
the valleys. 

In so unfavorable a 
climate the population is 
necessarily sparse and 

largely nomadic. Cattle, sheep, goats, horses, donkeys, and drome- 
daries are raised in large numbers, the three last being celebrated 
for their excellent qualities. 

Most of the Arabian peninsula is independent, though without a well- 
organized government. Turkey controls the west coast and the Persian 
Gulf coast as far as Oman. Oman, whose capital is the seaport of Maskat, 
was formerly an important kingdom ; it still has extensive pearl fisheries. 
The British have a foothold on the southwestern coast at Aden, one of 
their most important coaling stations. 

Mecca, a Turkish city about fifty miles from the sea, is sacred to all 
Mohammedans. It was here that Mohammed was born, and every Moham- 
medan is supposed to make a pilgrimage to it at least once during his life- 
time. Most of these pilgrims come by sea, and every year the city, as 
well as the roads leading to it, are crowded with them. 

Persia. — Like Arabia, Persia is an elevated table-land with large 
tracts of desert and salt steppes of little or no use to man. The 
arid climate prevents the formation of large rivers ; but the rains 



Fig. 419. 
A view amona;- the Arabian mountains. 



394 



ASIA 



and snows of the parallel mountain ranges permit some irrigation in 
the broad valleys. There is so little rainfall, however, and evapora- 
tion is so rapid during the hot, dry summer, that water for irrigation 
is often led from the mountains in underground tunnels. Why are 
tunnels preferable to ditches? 

The main farm products are tobacco, wheat, barley, cotton, and 
opium. Much silk is also produced, and roses are cultivated for 
the manufacture of attar of roses. The principal agricultural 
portion is near the Caspian Sea, where there is sufficient rainfall 
for crops and also for extensive forests on the mountain slopes. 




Fig. 420. 
A drove of camels in Persia. 



Among the mineral deposits is the precious stone turquoise ; but 
although there are doubtless other valuable minerals, there is little 
mining. Along the coast of both Arabia and Persia precious pearls 
and pearl shells are found. 

Nearly two million Persians belong' to nomadic tribes (Figs. 420 and 
421) which roam about the desert, dwelling in tents, and herding goats, 
sheep, and other animals. There is no extensive manufacturing, but the 
Persians, like the Turks, do some very beautiful hand weaving, as, for 
example, shawls and rugs. Their carving and inlaid metal and wood 
work are also wonderfully artistic. 

The government of Persia resembles that of Turkey and is 
therefore very bad. The ruler, or Shah, an absolute monarch, 
controls the lives and property of his subjects, who are mostly 
Mohammedans. Teheran, the capital, has some beautiful mosques, 
though the dwelling-houses are made of sun-dried bricks and face 
narrow, filthy streets. 



AFGHANISTAN 



395 



Afghanistan. — This countrj', " one of the waste places of the world," 
is a region of sand, bare rocks, and snow-capped mountains. Only in 
the valleys is the soil made to yield a harvest ; and even there the cold, 
blustering winters and the dry, scorching summers make one of the worst 

of climates. Life under such , ^_ 

unfavorable conditions has 
developed a people noted 
for hardiness, stubbornness, 
bravery, and cruelty. 

As in other Asiatic coun- 
tries so far studied, the gov- 
ernment is very bad. The 
ruler, the merciless Amir, 
holds his authority by means 
of the terror which he inspires. 
His seat of government is at 
Kabul, nestled among lofty 
mountains. Since Great Brit- 
ain has pushed her Indian 
frontier northward, while Rus- 
sia has encroached on the op- 
posite side of Afghanistan, this 
country is oft^n — called the 
"buffer state" between these 
two rival powers. 

Russia in Asia. — This 
vast section of the Russian 
Empire includes about one- 
eighth of the land surface 
of the globe. There are several divisions, such as Turkestan and 
the dependencies of Bokhara and Khiva ; but by far the largest is 
Siberia, which is a million square miles larger than Europe, and 
even larger than the United States, Mexico, and Central America 
combined. Yet it has less than one-twelfth as many inhabitants as 
the United States alone. It is cold, bleak tundra in the north, and 
arid steppe in the south, while in the east are lofty plateaus and 
mountains. But in the central part is a broad belt of agricultural 
country, and much forest-covered land. 

In the past Siberia has attained a reputation, mainly as a source 
of minerals, and as a place of exile for Russians whom the govern- 
ment Avishes to dispose of for political or other reasons. Gold has 
been found in a number of places, as in the Urals and near Lake 
Baikal, the largest fresh-water lake on the continent. But while 




iiG. 421. 
A Persian nomad girl. 



396 



ASIA 



there is much mhieral wealth m Siberia, there has been little mining, 
excepting in the western part near Russia. 

A new era seems about to open for this vast empire, for the Russian 
government is new constructing extensive railways which will open up 
the country for development. One system extends eastward from the 
Caspian Sea to Turkestan (Fig. 403), while another and longer one 
reaches from Eussia in Europe to the Pacific Ocean. Trace it on Figure 
403. Hitherto transportation across the vast plains, arid steppes, and 
rugged eastern mountains has been difficult in the extreme. 

Heretofore the products of Siberia could not easily be exported ; nor 
could machinery and other manufactured articles be brought in without 
the greatest difficulty. But by the building of railways we may expect a 
rapid development of Siberia, whose resources are far greater than the 




Fig. 422. 
A village in Siberia. 

sparseness of the population would indicate. Indeed, since the longer 
railway was begun there has been a rapid increase in population and 
exports, especially of corn. 

There are some important cities in Russia in Asia. The largest 
in the southwest is Tashkend, which is about the size of Indianap- 
olis. TiFLis, between the Black and Caspian seas, is really in Asia, 
though the Russian government classes this region with its European 
provinces. It is about the size of Tashkend. There are a number 
of other cities with a population of from fifty to a hundred thousand. 
In Siberia there are no large cities, though several along the railway, 
including Irkutsk and Vladivostok, are now growing rapidly. 

India. — This densely populated peninsula, with its warm cli- 
mate, offers a striking contrast to cold, sparsely populated (Fig. 400), 
and slightly developed Siberia. 

Physiogra])1iy and Climate. — Lying largely in the torrid zone, the 
Indian peninsula has a hot climate. Its position in the trade-wind 



INDIA 



397 




Fjg. 42o. 
Natives of the Cashmere Valley. 



belt might lead us to expect much desert, especially on the lee or 
western side. But this coast really has a heavy rainfall because it is 
reached by the summer monsoons (Fig. 262). In the winter, how- 
ever, when the winds blow 
from the land, the climate 
is so dry that plants wither; 
and in Baluchistan, which 
is not affected by the sum- 
mer monsoons, there is true 
desert. Southern India and 
Ceylon, on the other hand, 
have a heavy rainfall at all 
.seasons. Why? 

India, which is in the 
form of a triangle, has a 
remarkably regular coast 
and therefore few good harbors. Most of the peninsula is a plateau, 
rarely more than two thousand feet high, and largely covered with 

lava flows like those of the Colum- 
bia River Valley of western United 
States. 

North of the plateau is a broad 
lowland occupied by the Brahma- 
putra, Ganges, and Indus rivers, 
which, like the Po of Italy, have 
built the plains out of sediment 
brought from the mountains. 
Among the lofty mountains which 
lie to the north of the river plains, 
the highest are the Himalayas, in 
which there are scores of peaks, that 
reach an altitude of over four miles. 
Even the mountain passes are from 
seventeen to nineteen thousand feet 
above sea level, or much higher than 
Mt. Blanc in the Alps. 

Farming. — This mountain sys- 
tem has formed a northward bar- 
rier to British conquest, as in former days it served as a barrier to 
invasion from nomadic hordes which overran Asia Minor. With 




Fig. 424. 
A tea plant. 



398 ASIA 

such protection the fertile plains and deltas of the three great rivers 
became the seat of early civilization. From the very earliest times 
the people have been engaged in farming, and at present fully three- 
fifths of the population follow that occupation. 

As there are 287,000,000 inhabitants in an area of about 1,559,000 
square miles, it will be seen that there is an average of 184 persons for 
every square mile ; and in parts of the country there are 500 per square 
mile. The density of population may be better understood by remember- 
ing that there are only twenty persons per square mile in the United States. 
There are, in fact, almost as many people in India as in North America, 
South America, and Africa together. 




Fig. 425. 
A native village near Calcutta — notice the bamboo on the right. 

Millet, which grows on the dryer lands, and rice, which is raised 
on the river lowlands where the land can be flooded, are the staple 
foods of the natives. After the dense population is fed, however, 
little is left for export. Wheat, on the other hand, is raised for ex- 
port, and India is a vast granary for Great Britain. Much cotton is 
also produced. Some of this is manufactured into coarse fabrics for 
use at home and for export to China and Africa; but much is ex- 
ported as raw cotton for use in the cotton mills of Great Britain. 
Other agricultural products are tea, sugar-cane, tobacco, opium ob- 
tained from a species of poppy, indigo of value as a dye, and jute 
grown upon the sandy river bars for the sake of its coarse, strong fibre. 



INDIA 



399 



For the production of rice, and. for other crops as well, irrigation is 
necessary in many places. Therefore this country, favored with large 
rivers fed by the rains, snows, and melting glaciers of the mountains, has 
some of the most extensive irrigation works in the world. 

Forests and Wild Animals. — There are valuable forests on the moun- 
tain slopes, where the trees, including pines, lirs, and junipers, resemble 
those of Europe ; and there are also magnolias and the beautiful deodar, a 
species of cedar. In the hotter portions are valuable medicinal plants and 
spices, such as pepper and cinnamon. The teak, with strong, durable 
wood, of great value in building, and the mango, the fruit of which is 
important as a food between harvests, are both common. Besides these, 
the bamboo and various palms are of great value. The bamboo is employed 
in hundreds of ways in making implements and building houses (Fig. 
425) ; and the palms supply juices for drink, fibre for ropes and mats, and 
cocoanuts (Fig. 412) for food and oil. 

In parts of the Ganges Valley and elsewhere there are jungles, or tracts 
of waste land densely covered with bamboos, canes, etc., and very difficult 
to penetrate. From these wastes the lion has almost disappeared ; but 
the elephant is still found, and there are various species of the monkey ; 
also the rhinoceros, buffalo, leopard, wild boar, wolf, and Bengal tiger 
(Fig. 404). The tiger is much dreaded, for it not only preys upon cattle, 
but even attacks men. Among the Himalayas, goats, sheep, asses, and 
dogs still exist in a wild state. Crocodiles live in the rivers ; and 
venomous serpents are said to kill as many as twenty thousand persons 
each year. 

Mining and Manufacturing. — In addition to the raw products of 
farms and forests there are valuable minerals, including salt, petro- 
leum, coal, and iron. India has long been noted for hand-made 
goods of great beauty ; but with the exception of these .there is 
little manufacturing. Of 
late, however, there has been 
a marked development of 
cotton manufacturing by 
machinerv. 




Famines and Plagues. — 
Although these people are so 
extensively engaged in agricul- 
ture, there are times when they 
do not raise enough food for 
their own use, and then terrible 
famines result. These occur 
when rain fails ; and it may be that one section suffers while another has 
an abundance. With the building of railways the danger of famines 
decreases, for then different sections are brought more closely together. 



Fig. 426. 
A tomb and mosque in India. 



400 



ASIA 



The first railway was begun in 1854, and there is now a network across the 
peninsula (Fig. 403). 

But even the railways do not entirely remove the danger ; and probably 
famines will not cease so long as such vast numbers depend entirely 
upon the products of the soil. 

India has also been visited by plagues which have destroyed tens of 
thousands of lives. With a population so dense, in a climate so hot, 

disease spreads with rapidity 
and with terrible effect, par- 
ticularly among people who 
are not properly nourished. 

The people have many 
religious superstitions. For 
example, the Ganges, doubtless 
because of its great value for 
irrigating and fertilizing the 
soil, is considered a sacred 
river (Fig. 430) ; and bathing 
in its waters is supposed to 
wash away disease, though, 
since the waters are also used 
for drinking, this custom is 
no doubt responsible for the 
sxjread of much disease. The 
conscientious Hindu makes at 
least one pilgrimage to the 
holy river as a means of gain- 
ing divine favor and forgive- 
ness. 

Crovernment. — Over 
three hundred years ago a 
company of London mer- 
chants obtained a foothold in 
India for trading purposes. 
The peninsula was then 
divided among many native rulers, and at various times the British 
government was called upon to settle disputes between them. Partly 
in this way, and partly through the occasion of intervening for the 
protection of British subjects engaged in the Indian trade, Great 
Britain gradually gained control of the peninsula. India was for- 
mally transferred to Great Britain in 1858, and in 1877 the Indian 
Empire was established as a part of the British Empire. The king 
of the British Isles is also styled Emperor of India. 




Fi<;. i27. 
The Great Paaoda in India - 



-a sacred temple. 



INDIA 



401 



By their protection and direction, the British are able to maintain 
their hold upon this vast country, the population of which is more than 
seven times that of the British Isles. Throughout India there is an 
average of but one British resident to every three thousand natives, and 
by far the greater number of government officers are Hindus. One of the 
members of the British ministry is Secretary of State for India ; and, as 
in the case of Canada, a governor-general, called the Viceroy, is sent from 
Great Britain as chief executive officer. The British have not attempted 
to overturn the numerous native states ; nor have they interfered seriously 
with the firmly established customs of the people. 

Baluchistan and Burma. — The Indian Empire is not confined to the 
Indian peninsula. It includes also the desert country of Baluchistan to 




Fig. 428. 
Elephants at work in a lumber yard in Burma. 



the west, and fertile Burma to the east. In the latter country there are 
great numbers of Mongolians. Vast quantities of rice are raised, and there 
are other valuable products, as rubies, sapphires, and tropical woods. In 
Burma the elephant is used for moving logs (Fig. 428), drawing ploughs, 
and carrying passengers. Baistgoon, the seaport, is noted for its export 
of rice ; but Mandalay, farther up the Irawadi Eiver, is the largest city 
in Burma. 

Base of Himalayas. — Between Burma and the peninsula of India, at 
the base of the Himalaya Mountains, is the region which has the heaviest 
rainfall in the world (p. 230). Much tea is raised on the hills of that sec- 
tion (Figs. 424 and 429) ; for tea requires a hot climate, an abundance of 
rain, and sufficient slope to prevent the water from standing about the 
roots of the plant. 
2d 



402 ASIA 

The tea plant, which is three or four feet high, has bright green leaves 
resembling those of a rose bush. The leaves are picked several times a 
year, often by boys and girls. After they are picked they are dried in 
the sun and later in buildings, in order to remove all moisture before 
packing. 

Just north of this tea district, among the Himalayas, are Nepal and 
Bhutan, Avhich, though small, retain their independence because they are 
so protected by the mountains 




Fig. 429. 
Picking tea in India. 

Principal Cities. — So many Hindus are engaged in farming that 
only about five per cent of them dwell in large towns. Nevertheless, 
there are seventy-five cities with a population of over fifty thou- 
sand, while two, Calcutta and Bombay, have over eight hundred- 
thousand each. 

Calcutta, the largest city, is a seaport on the Ganges delta and 
the natural outlet oi the fertile Ganges Valley ; but it has a poor 
harbor on a river that varies in volume. It has some manufactur- 
ing, — being near coal fields, — but it is chiefly important as a 
commercial centre and as the residence of the Viceroy. 

Farther up the Ganges are the smaller cities, Lucknow and Benakes. 
The latter, the "holy city of the Hindus," is on that part of the Ganges 
which is deemed most holy. At this point temples (Fig. 430) line the 



INDIA 



403 



banks of the river for miles, and a steady stream of pilgrims pours in and 
out of the city. 

While there are several cities on the Ganges, there are none on the 
Indus large enough to find a place on our map. This is not because the 
Indus is nseless for irrigation, but because of shallow waters and sand 
bars which interfere with navigation. These are due to the fact that the 
river, thongh well supplied with water from the mountains, loses much of 




Fig. 430. 
Temples along the Ganges at Benares. 



it hj evaporation in crossing the arid plains. Thus it is obliged to deposit 
some of its sediment as sand bars in its channel. 

Bombay, next in size to Calcutta and the nearest port to Eng- 
land, is a great business centre. It is, moreover, the only Indian 
city with a really good harbor. Madras, the third largest city, is 
situated at a point where there is only an open roadstead protected 
by a breakwater. 

Ceylon. — With a fertile soil, abundant rainfall, and high though 
equable temperature, Ceylon is a beautiful tropical garden, and was con- 
sidered by the Arabs to be the Garden of Eden. Among the products of 
Ceylon are cocoannts, rice, fruit, coffee, and tea. The island is the third 
most important tea-producing section in the world. Other products are 
sapphires and rubies from the stream gravels, and beautiful pearls and 
mother of pearl obtained from shellfish which live among the coral reefs. 



404 



ASIA 



Indo-China and the Malay Peninsula. — This peninsula consists of 
a series of mountain chains, spreading fan-shaped southward, with 
numerous long, narrow valleys between, which broaden toward the 
south and terminate in fertile, populous delta plains at the river 
mouths. In addition to Burma, a. part of the Indian Empire, there 
are three divisions of this peninsula : (1) Siam, (2) French Indo- 
China^ and (3) the British Straits Settlements. 

Siam. — In this tropical country most of the inhabitants, who are 
either Chinese or Malays, live along the rivers and irrigation canals, 
where they are largely engaged in the production of rice. Millet, 
which is raised in the drier places, competes with rice in importance 
as a food. Among the mineral products are rubies, sapphires, gold, 
and tin. The forests yield tropical woods, especially teak wood, for 
use at home and for export. 

Siam is a monarchy, the king being assisted by a council of ministers 
and a legislative body of noblemen. The poorer classes are still kept in a 
kind of serfdom by the local governors ; that is, they may be compelled to 
labor for the governors for two or three mouths each year. 

Bangkok, the capital and largest city, is situated on the banks of 
a muddy river, up which vessels of small draught are able to pass 

to the city. Most of the in- 
habitants live either in poor 
houses on narrow ill-kept 
streets, or else in boats and 
floating houses on the river ; 
but the king has magnificent 
palaces decorated with carved 
marble and frescoed with 
gold. Buddhism is the reli- 
gion of the country ; and in 
Bangkok alone there are said 
to be ten thousand Buddhist 
priests whose temples (Fig. 
431), decorated with gold, 
silver, and jewels, are wonder- 
fully gorgeous. Next to the 
reverence, and Siam is often 




Fig. 431. 
A Buddhist temple at Bangkok. 



king the white elephant is held in highest 
called '' the Land of the White Elephant." 

French Indo-China. — This dependency of France resembles Siam in 
climate and people. Its forest-covered hills yield valuable teak and iron 
wood, and in its valleys are extensive fields of rice and millet. Rice cul- 
ture is here favored by the warm, damp climate and by the broad, easily 
flooded deltas and flood plains of the Mekong and other rivers. Silk, 



CHINA 



405 



cotton, tea, and spices are other products, and there are also extensive coal 
beds. Some coal is exported. 

Straits Settlements. — This is the name given to the British possessions 
on the southern end of the Malay peninsula. In that hot, damp country, 
so near the equator, such tropical products as rice, cocoanuts, gutta-percha, 
and spices are obtained. Extensive deposits of tin are found in this region, 
which supplies about half the tin used in the world. The mining is done 
crudely by Chinese, while the native Malays are mainly engaged in farming 
and fishing. The only city of importance is Singapore. 

Chinese Empire. Area and Population. — This empire, which is 
nearly as large as Siberia, has more inhabitants than any other nation 
in the world. It includes nearly half the population of Asia ; that is, 
about the same number as are found in North America, South America, 
Africa, Australia, the British Isles, and Germany together. Or, 
otherwise expressed, it has fully twenty-five million more people than 
live in all of Europe. The hordes of Chinese who live on the river 
flood plains and deltas of the south and east make this the most 
densely settled large area on the globe. 

Nevertheless, there are outlying'provinces of great extent, such as Mon- 
golia, Turkestan, and Tibet, where the population is very sparse (Fig. 400). 
This is because of the rugged mountains and the vast desert plateaus 
where the dryness is unfavorable to all industries save herding. There 
are large sections, as in the great Desert of Gobi, where even this in- 
dustry is impossible. Strangers find it difficult to enter some of these 
remote districts ; and the 
holy city of Lassa in Tibet 
has been visited, it is said, 
by only three Europeans. 
The inhabitants Avish to save 
their city and its sacred 
temples from intrusion, and 
they capture and often tor- 
ture those whose curiosity 
leads them there. Over these 
wild regions the Chinese gov- 
ernment is able to exert only 
a very slight authority. p^^ ^^^ 




A scene in the arid mountainous part of China, where 
camels are used. 



Climate. — Most of the 
densely settled part of 
China has a temperate climate with an abundance of rain during the 
summer monsoon. In the north, for example near Peking, which 
is in about the same latitude as Philadelphia, the summers are warm 



406 



ASIA 



and the winters cold ; bnt farther south, as at Canton, just south of 
the Tropic of Cancer, the climate is tropical, and there is rain 
throughout the year. Toward the interior the climate grows steadily 
drier, and, with increasing elevation, colder also. 

The rains and snows of the Chinese mountains supply water for a 
number of large rivers. The two most important are the Hoang-ho 
and the Yangtse-kiang (Fig. 406), whose floods spread out over the 
broad deltas and flood plains, thus depositing sediment and adding 
fertility to the soil. The greatest rise, which in the Yangtse-kiang 
reaches a height of fully forty feet, occurs during the summer rains. 




Fig. 433. 
A part of the Great Wall of China. 



It is with great difficulty that the Hoang-ho is controlled, and in the 
last twenty-five hundred years its lower course has changed eleven dif- 
ferent times. In some cases this has caused a change of three hundred 
miles in the position of the river moixth. A single flood destroyed a mill- 
ion people. Because of the repeated destruction of life and property, the 
Hoang-ho has been called " China's Sorrow." 

People and Civilization. — The Chinese Empire is inhabited by 
people of varied origin, with different customs, religions, and lan- 
guages. The Mongolians, who form the basis of the population, 
apparently came from western Asia, bringing with them the knowl- 



CHINA 



407 



edge of irrigation. Although China is partially protected on the 
west by mountain ranges and desert, the constant danger of invasion 
by nomads led, as early as 212 B.C., to the construction of the Great 
Wall (Fig. 433) along the northern frontier. 

This wall, twelve hundred miles long in a straight line, and fifteen 
hundred miles with all of its windings, passes up and down hill (Fig. 433) 
and even over a mountain peak. It is twenty-five feet wide and thirty 
feet high, and at short distances apart are strong watch-towers rising still 
higher. This wonderful structure, which required armies of men to build, 
was so well made that it is still perfect in many places. 




A scene in a public court at Shanghai. 

Long before Europeans had emerged from the state of barbarism, the 
Chinese had developed a remarkable civilization. The art of printing, 
the manufacture of gunpowder, the production of silk and silk goods, the 
baking of porcelain or china ware, and other important arts were known 
to them long before Europeans learned them. 

But in spite of their early start, the Chinese have been outstripped by 
Europeans (p. 389). Their peculiar customs in part account for their 
failure to advance farther. They are followers of Confucius, and his 
doctrine is everywhere taught. In fact, no one can be appointed a gov- 
ernment official who has not passed an examination in the Chinese classics, 
including the doctrine of Confucius. 

One of their doctrines is ancestor worship, which leads them to regard 
new customs as bad. This tends to check development, and is one of the 



408 



ASIA 



reasons why they object to adopting European and American civilization. 
The strength of their ancestor worship is indicated by the fact that diso- 
bedience to parents is regarded in China as one of the worst of sins, for 
which children may be whipped to death. By law the punishment for 
striking a parent is death. 

The conservatism of the Chinese is shown by their objection to the 
introduction of labor-saving machinery, and it is also shown by their 
methods of transportation. Much of the traffic is carried on by means of 
canals (Fig. 435), of which the largest is the Grand Canal (Fig. 403), 
built more than twelve hundred years ago. The rivers are also used 
(Fig. 406), even where transportation on them seems almost impos- 
sible ; yet, instead of steam, they make use of poles, oars, and sails. Good 
roads are rare, and one of the principal vehicles is the wheelbarrow, even 
for carrying travellers. There are, for example, two thousand passenger 
wheelbarrows in Shanghai. Pack animals and men are used for carrying 

loads, and the more prosper- 
ous persons are carried in 
chairs by their servants. It 
is evident that a man's time 
in China is -not valued very 
highly. 




Fig. 435. 
A typical Chinese village and canal. 



National Resources. — 
Though many Chinese are 
engag-ed in fishing, both in 
the rivers and the ocean, 
they are in the main an 
agricultural people. Their 
farming methods are very 
crude ; yet they are so 
careful and industrious, and labor is of so little value, that they till 
every bit of land possible. For example, water for irrigation, in- 
stead of being distributed only over moderate slopes, as in the United 
States, is often taken to the very tops of hills. It is first raised 
from the river by means of wheels, turned either by men or by buf- 
faloes, and then pumped upward from one terrace to the next until 
the whole hillside has been watered. 

The principal food of the Chinese is rice ; but their main 
products for export are tea and silk. Tea is raised on the damp 
hill slopes of the south, where the conditions resemble those in 
India (p. 402). Fully forty thousand men and women are employed 
in carrying tea into FucHAU alone. They receive but ten cents a 
day for their labor. In the warm south, great quantities of silk 



CHINA 



409 



are obtained, as in France, from the cocoon of the silk-worm cater- 
pillar. Some of the caterpillars feed on forest leaves, others are 
carefully fed on the mulberry leaf. 

As in otlier countries of southern Asia, the bamboo is one of the most 
valuable products. The seeds are ground up for food, and in spring the 
tender roots and stalks are eaten. Tile 
roofs and walls of houses, as well as 
nearly all articles of furniture, are 
made of bamboo wood. It is, more- 
over, woven into mats, baskets, and 
hats, while paper is made from its 
pulp. There is almost no other kind 
of manufacturing, nor is there much 
development of the wonderful mineral 
resources. It is said that China con- 
tains the largest coal fields in the 
world, in which both bituminous and 
anthracite coal occur; and there are 
also deposits of gold, silver, lead, and 
iron ore. 

Government. — The Chinese gov- 
ernment is peculiar. The Emperor., 
who has a right to nominate his own 
successor, is known as the " Son 
of Heaven." He has under him a 
Viceroy for each province, who must collect money for the imperial 
government, but is partly independent of the Emperor. The present 
Emperor is not a Chinaman, but belongs to the Manchu division of 
the yellow race, which invaded and conquered China in 1644. It was 
then that the Manchu custom of wearing a long queue, or " pigtail," 
was introduced into China. 

Princiioal Cities. — There are many cities in China, all densely 
crowded. The poorer classes live huddled together, while the 
wealthier classes and officials dwell in comfort and luxury. The 
largest city is Cantox, which has more inhabitants than Chicago. 
It is situated on a densely populated delta and is a port of outlet for 
productive southern China, being especially noted for its silk. It is 
said that three hundred thousand people, or one-eighth of the inhabi- 
tants, live in boats moored in the river. 

Hongkong (Fig. 437), an island which commands the approach 
to Canton, belongs to the British. To Hongkong many of the 




Fig. 436. 
A Chinese pagoda or temple. 



410 



ASIA 



products of China are sent for export to Europe and America. It 
is therefore a very busy place. Hankau and Wuchang, on oppo- 
site sides of the Yangtse-kiang River, are important river ports for 
tea. As in the case of most Chinese cities, the number of inhabi- 
tants is uncertain. For example, by some estimates Hankau has a 
population of a million and a half, by others, only eight hundred 
thousand. 

The treaty port^ of Shanghai is another large city ; but Tien- 
tsin, the port nearest Peking, and the northern terminus of the Grand 
Canal, is still larger, having a population of about a million. It was 
from this point that the allied forces started, in 1900, to relieve the 
foreigners who were besieged in Pekin by the Chinese Boxers. 




Fig. 437. 
The harbor of Hongkong. 

Peking, the capital of China, is situated on a broad, sandy plain. 
It has been the capital of a kingdom for three thousand years and of 
the Chinese Empire for over eight centuries. This city, like others 
in China, is surrounded by a high wall with gates that are closed at 
night, as of old in Europe. It is a rectangular city, with one portion 
reserved for the gardens and palaces of the imperial government. 
This part is known as the " Forbidden City," because the Chinese 
government refused to permit foreigners to enter it. 

Korea. — This mountainous peninsula has a temperate climate and is 
adapted to the production of such crops as grains in the north, and rice, 
tobacco, and cotton in the south. In many respects the inhabitants 
resemble the Chinese; in fact, Korea was a dependency of China until 

1 Foreigners are not allowed to trade in all Chinese cities, and those ports where 
this privilege is allowed by treaty are called "Treaty Ports." 



JAPAN 



411 



freed by the war between China and Japan in 1894. While there are 
great natural resources, including both coal and iron, there has been little 
advance. The government is an absolute monarchy ; the people have few 
rights ; and, until 1882, the country was closed to foreigners. But now 
foreign influence is beginning to be felt in this "Hermit Kingdom," the 
capital of which is Seoul. 

Japan. — This island empire extends from Formosa, captured 
from the Chinese in 1894, to the Kurile Islands far to the north. 
How many degrees is that ? About how many miles ? The location 
of the islands with reference to the mainland reminds us of the 
British Isles ; and, in fact, Japan's isolation from other countries has 
secured to her the same freedom from invasion as has long proved of 
such advantage to the British. 

Physiography and Climate. — Notwithstanding the great length 
of the empire, its narrow islands occupy an area but little greater 
than that of California. So much of this is mountainous that not 
more than one-sixth of the surface can be cultivated, and many of 
the lowlands are difficult to reach because of the rugged surface and 
the absence -of navigable rivers. There are numerous volcanoes 
(Fig. 405) ; and, since the mountains are still growing (p. 385), 
there are many earthquakes. These are so frequent and violent that 
in building houses the people must allow for their force. 

Nipon, the main island of Japan, has a warm temperate climate 
and an abundance of rain. Other islands near by have a similar 
climate, but Formosa is partly within 
the tropics. Estimate its distance 
from Manila. 

Under these conditions, in several 
respects so unfavorable, a dense popu- 
lation has developed, equal to more 
than half the number in the United 
States. In many ways the Japanese 
are the most advanced people in Asia. 

Peopleayid G-overnment. — In early 
times Japan was invaded by Mongo- 
lians from the mainland, who expelled 
the original inhabitants to the more 
barren northern islands. From these Mongolians are descended the 
present Japanese (see Figs. 274 and 413), a people noted for their 
smallness of stature and their M^onderful artistic instinct. 




Fig. 438. 
A Japanese peasant family travelling. 



412 



ASIA 



Centuries before the time of Christ they had developed a civiliza- 
tion resembling that of their kinsmen, the Chinese. Their fine taste 

led to the manufacture of 
many beautiful article of 
silk, metal, glass, and wood. 
Like the Chinese, they for 
a long time did not care 
for modern civilization, and 
closed their ports to the 
outside world. In 1853, 
however. United States 
warships under Commo- 
dore Perry entered Yo- 
kohama and induced the 
Japanese to open their 
ports to our commerce. 
After this important step 
the country, in 1868, was freely opened to the world. 

One great drawback to the advance of Japan was the nature of 
the government, which resembled that of Europe in the Middle Ages. 
While the Mikado was nominally emperor, the real power was in the 
hands of noblemen who, by the feudal system, had large numbers of 
peasants, not only to work for them, but to fight when necessary. 




Fig. 439. 
A Japanese travelling-chair. 




Fig. 440. 
A temple in Japan. 



JAPAN 



413 



After the country was opened to foreigners the power of the noble- 
men was lessened, and the Mikado became the real emperor. At 
present he is aided by two legislative bodies, one consisting mainly 
of noblemen, the other elected by qualified voters. There is also a 
Cabinet appointed by the Mikado, as the Cabinet of the United 
States is appointed by the President. 

Recent Advance. — Since these changes the Japanese have become 
noted for their willingness to learn the lessons of Western civilization, 
and their progress has been truly marvellous. New schools have been 
started, and education has been made compulsory. Americans and Euro- 
peans have been induced to go to Japan to teach, and Japanese students 
have been sent to Europe and America to study in the universities and to 
learn what they could of Western civilization. Thus, in a generation the 
Japanese have added to their own knowledge that of Europe and America; 
and they have learned their lessons so well that, with their patience, skill, 
and intelligence, they alone 
of all the nations in Asia 
have taken rank with the 
great nations of the world. 

The progress that has 
been made is suggested by 
the following facts. Over 
seven hundred newspapers 
and periodicals are now pub- 
lished in Japan. While in 
1872 there was only one short 
railway from Yokohama to 
Tokio, a distance of eighteen 
miles, there are now more 
than three thousand miles of railway in the empire. There are many large 
manufactories of various kinds ; and, as in the British Isles, cotton and 
other raw products are imported for manufacture. There is a curious- 
mixture of modern and ancient customs here (see Figs. 438-441). 

Resources. — Among the mountains there are valuable deposits of 
gold, silver, copper, iron, and coal ; and these are now well devel- 
oped. The mountain sides are covered with forests of great value, 
including giant cedars, camphor laurels, and lacquer trees ; and wher- 
ever the soil is favorable there is agriculture. Among the products 
of the farm are wheat, sugar-cane, and rice, the latter being the 
chief article of food, as among other Mongolians. As in China, 
both tea and silk are produced, and these form two of the main 
articles of export. Much of our tea comes from Japan. Besides 




Fig. 441. 

A jinrikisha, or " man-power-carriage." 



414 ASIA 

these industries, fully two and a half millions of people are engaged 
in fishing. 

Principal Cities. — ToKio, a city about the size of Philadelphia, 
is the capital of Japan. Besides being the home of the Mikado, and 
therefore having many government buildings, it has numerous manu- 
factories. Yokohama, at the entrance to Tokio Baj^, was a mere 
fishing village when visited by Perry ; but since the harbor of Tokio 
is unsuited for the large modern ships, Yokohama has grown rapidly 
and now has the largest foreign trade in Japan. 

Other important cities, having a population of several hundred thousand, 
are Osaka, noted for its cotton manufacturing ; Kioto, the former capital, 
and the centre of the tea district; and Nagoya, a centre for porcelain 
manufacturing, for which Japan has long been noted. All these cities are 
connected by railway lines, which have been a great aid in the development 
of their industries. State how. 

Review Questions. — (1) Tell about the size of Asia; also its position with 
reference to the zones and other continents. (2) Tell about its physiography. 
(3) Describe the climate. (4) Tell about the plants and animals, showing the 
contrast between northern and southern Asia. (5) What about the use made of 
animals? (6) In what sections were the beginnings of civilization probably made? 
Why there? (7) Give reasons why Europeans have so outstripped the Asiatics. 
(8) Tell about the population of Asia and its distribution. (9) Why is Turkey in 
Asia of special interest to us? (10) Describe its surface, climate, and industries. 

(11) Why, and from what peoples, has Asia Minor suffered frequent invasions? 

(12) Tell about the Holy Land : its surface ; climate ; history ; present condi- 
tion. (13) Tell about Mesopotamia. (14) Describe the surface and climate of 
Arabia. (15) Tell about its government, products, and principal cities. (16) Give 
the main facts about Persia. (17) Do the same for Afghanistan. (18) Com- 
pare the area of Siberia with that of various countries of the world. (19) What 
about the resources and future of Siberia? (20) Tell about India: its climate and 
surface ; population ; agricultural products ; forests and jungles; animals and plants ; 
minerals; manufactures; famines and plagues. (21) How did the British gain 
control over India, and how is the control exercised? (22) Tell about Baluchistan 
and Burma. (23) For what are the countries at the base of the Himalayas impor- 
tant? (24) Locate and tell about the principal cities of India. (25) What can 
you tell about Ceylon ? (26) Give the principal facts about Siam. (27) Do the 
same for French Indo-China ; for Straits Settlements. (28) Tell about China : 
area; number of inhabitants and their distribution; climate and rivers; people 
and their early civilization ; reasons for their recent lack of development, giving 
examples; agricultural products ; minerals and manufactures; government; prin- 
cipal cities. (29) What can you tell about Korea? (30) Tell about Jajian : posi- 
tion ; area ; physiography and climate ; population ; people and government ; recent 
advance ; resources ; chief cities. 

Review and Comparison with North America.^ — How do North America 
and Asia differ in form, coast line, islands, mountains, direction of rivers, and 

1 Aid in answering some of these questions may be obtained in Section beginning 
on p. 223 and the Appendix. 



QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 415 

deserts? (2) What other differences between the two continents can you mention? 
What resemblances ? (3) Is the Canadian Pacific railway north or south of the 
Siberian railway? Which is the longer? (4) Is San Francisco north or south of 
Peking? (5) Name the three peninsulas of southern Asia ; of southern Europe. 
Which of the six is nearest the latitude of Florida? (6) Name the large rivers of 
Asia and of Canada that flow into the Arctic Ocean. On a globe estimate the 
shortest distance between the mouths of the Mackenzie and Lena rivers. (7) How 
do the great rivers of China compare in length with the Mississippi? With the 
Volga? (8) How do the interior lakes and seas of Asia compare in value for com- 
merce with our Great Lakes? (9) With what lake in North America may the 
Aral Sea be compared? (10) What ocean currents affect the climate of Asia? Of 
North America? (11) Compare the climatic belts of Siberia with those of Canada. 
(12) Is western Asia more or less suited to agriciilture and commerce than western 
North America? Why? (13) In what portions of North America and Asia is 
rice cultivated? (14) Answer the same question for cotton. (15) What impor- 
tant crops in Asia are not extensively produced in the United States? (16) Name 
some of the leading imports from Asia to the United States. (17) What about 
mining in Asia compared with that in the United States? (18) INIake the same 
comparison for manufacturing; for railways. (19) What is the prevailing kind 
of govermnent in each of the two continents? (20) Compai'e the population of 
the five largest cities of Asia with the five largest in North America. (21) What 
are the advantages to the United States of its control of the Philippines? The 
disadvantages ? 

Suggestions. — (1) What do you know about recent massacres of Armenian 
Christians by the Turks ? (2) Why, do you suppose, has Turkey not laid claim to 
all of Arabia? (3) Estimate the area of the Holy Land. (4) Make a sand or 
clay map of the Holy Land (Fig. 416). (.5) Point out on the map (Fig. 416) 
some of the places often mentioned in the New Testament and describe some of the 
events that occun-ed there. (6) What Bible events have their scene in Mesopo- 
tamia ? (7) Write a paper to show to what extent our present civilization is 
indebted to the Holy Land. (8) Find out some facts about the Crusades. 
(9) Find out the length of the railway across Siberia. (10) About how far is it 
by rail from Lisbon in Portugal to Port Arthur on the Pacific ? (11) Read Kip 
ling's Jungle Books. (12) Why should the Great Wall of China have less value 
now than formerly? (13) How is Peking poorly situated for the capital of so vast 
an empire? (14) Find out about our laws for the exclusion of the Chinese, and 
the reasons why they were passed. (15) Describe some of the events connected 
with the siege of the legations and the relief expeditions sent to Peking in 1900. 
(16) Find some facts about typhoons. (17) What Asiatic countries have you 
seen represented among the immigrants to the United States? (IS) Examine 
pictures of buildings in Asia (in this book or elsewhere), to note how different are 
their styles of architecture from our own. (19) Write a paper telling in what 
respects you would expect to find an Asiatic city different from one of our own. 
(20) By what water routes could you go from New York to Tientsin ? Would it 
be neai'er to go by rail as far as either San Francisco or Seattle ? (21) By what 
three all-water routes could you go from New York to Bombay? Which is the 
shortest? (22) Who was Omar Khayydm, and what did he write? (23) Find 
some facts about the conquest of parts of Asia by Alexander the Great. (24) Who 
first reached India by water? (25) Who was Marco Polo? 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 



II. AFRICA 

Physiography. — Africa, the second continent in size, resembles 
South America in outline. Its form is roughly that of a triangle, 
broad at the north and tapering toward the south. The coast line is 
remarkably regular, in striking contrast with the coast of Europe, 
Asia, and North America, and resembling that of South America 
and Australia. What must be some of the consequences of such 
regularity ? What gulfs, seas, and large islands are found on the 
map of Africa ? 

Africa differs from all other continents in its mountain systems. 
It is mainly a plateau, but near the coast the plateau edges are 
broken and the rocks upturned, so that there is an almost complete 
mountain rim. Trace this rim (Fig. 444) ; from what part of the 
coast is it absent ? In northern Africa the Atlas ranges reach an 
elevation of fourteen thousand feet ; but the loftiest mountains are 
in the east central part. Among the latter is the volcanic cone 
of Kilimanjaro, the highest peak on the continent. Find this peak 
and trace the mountains from there northward. Notice the elevated 
land in Abyssinia. 

Owing to the mountain rim the rivers of Africa are peculiar. For 
instance, the Niger, after rising among the highlands near the west coast, 
sweeps around in a great curve before entering the Atlantic. The Zam- 
bezi, in the south, also rises near the west coast, but crosses the continent 
eastward to the Indian Ocean. Trace the courses of the Nile and the 
Kongo, the two largest rivers. 

In descending from the plateau each of these streams is interrupted 
by rapids and falls. Find the Victoria Falls of the Zambezi (Fig. 443) ; 
the cataracts of the Nile ; also Leopoldville on the Kongo, below which 
are some falls. Rapids also occur in the Niger. How will these great 
rivers compare, therefore, with the Mississippi or Amazon as routes for 
commerce ? How must these falls affect the development of Africa ? 
In one part of Africa there are several large lakes. Name the three 
largest. Into what rivers do they empty ? 

Climate. — The equator crosses so near the middle of Africa that 
only the northern and southern ends are in the temperate zones. 

416 




ELEPHANT 



LION 



The M.N.Co.,Bufi 



Fig. 442. 
Some of the African auimals. 




Fig. 443. 
Map Questions. — (1) Compare the size of Africa with that of the otlier continents. 
(2) Sketch the eastern hemisphere to show the position of Africa. (3) Slietch the outline 
of Africa, and locate the in-incipal rivers and lakes. (4) What peculiarity do you notice 
ahout the location of the mountains? (5) What zones cross Africa? (6) What kind of 
climate (temperature and rainfall) would you expect to find (a) in the extreme north; 




Williams Town 
lams Towa 
Port EJizabeth 



'b) in the extreme south ; (c) at the equator ; (d) near the tropics ? (7) Find the desert 
>ountry north and south of the equator. Explain its cause. (8) How does it happen 
hat the Nile has water enough to flow so far throuoh the desert? (9) In what sections 
ire the most railways? What reasons can you suggest? (10) Where are the large 
•ities? Compare their uumher with those in other continents, Why should there he this 
iiffereuce ? 




Fig. 44i. 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 



417 



Therefore the climate of most of the continent, like that of South 
America, is tropical. Since the altitude of so much of Africa is 
so nearly uniform, the belts of climate extend nearly east and 
west. What is true in this respect of South America ? 

In equatorial Africa, that is for some distance both to the north 
and south of the equator, there is such a hot, rainy climate that, 
as in the Amazon Valley, 
the land is densely cov- 
ered with a tropical forest 
(Fig. 445). This is espe- 
cially well illustrated at 
the base of the plateau 
where the narrow strip of 
coast land is hot, reeking 
with moisture, and the 
seat of deadly malaria. 
These conditions have 
greatly interfered with 
exploration, for disease is 
apt to seize white men 
even while they are cross- 
ing the coastal strip. 

The interior, owing Fig. 445. 

to its greater elevation, is Tq gij^^ the influence of climate on vegetation. In 
somewhat cooler and less *^® savanna area there are numerous forest-covered 
„ , sections, especially near the rivers. 

unhealthiul ; but even 

there tropical heat and rain prevail in the equatorial belt. It is this 
heavy rainfall that supplies the Kongo and Nile with their immense 
volumes of water. Both to the north and to the south of the rainy 
equatorial region is the savanna belt (Fig. 445) where the rainfall 
varies with the season. Why? (p. 224.) What are the conditions 
in the savanna ? (p. 250.) 

As the tropical forest grades into the savanna, so the savanna 
grades into the true desert (Fig. 445, also p. 421), where the influ- 
ence of the drying trade winds is felt at all times of the year. The 
northern desert is larger and better developed than that south of the 
equator. This is due partly to the fact that the continent is so 
broad in the north, and partly to the large land areas which lie 
to the north and east — the directions from which the winds of 
northern Africa must come. On the mountain slopes near the 
2e 




iiz\ Deserts 
cuSfeppes 
^Savannas 
m^F"o rests 

" 'fropic of Cdpr/corn 



418 



AFRICA 




AFRItV. 
DeiisUj ot Puiuil II 

I I Less than 1 per Sqi 

I 1 ol26 



Fig. 446. 



Mediterranean there is moderate rainfall; and likewise on the south- 
eastern slopes of South Africa where the winds blow from the sea. 

Plants and Animals. — 
Northern Africa is so close 
to southern Europe that 
there is a marked resembl- 
ance between the animals 
and plants on the two sides 
of the Mediterranean. The 
desert, however, serves as 
an effective barrier to their 
spread southward. 

Portions of the desert, 
especially where covered 
with dunes of moving sand, 
are almost void of plant life. 
Animals are also few in 
number and limited in kind, 
among them being the os- 
trich (Fig. 442) and the 
camel. The oases, on the other hand, support a number of plants. 
Of these the date palm is most notable, for it is an important source 
of food for the nomads of the desert. 
The open country between the desert 
and the tropical forest abounds in large 
animals (Fig. 442). Among these, on 
the savannas, and on the edge of the 
forest, are the antelope, giraffe, buffalo, 
zebra, elephant, lion, leopard, and rhi- 
noceros, while the crocodile and the huge 
hippopotamus live in the rivers. The 
dense forest itself is shunned by many of 
the larger forms, though teeming with 
insect life, birds, reptiles, and tree-dwell- 
ing mammals. Among the latter are the 
baboon, the gorilla, and the chimpanzee 
(Fig. 442). 

The People. — Central and southern 
Africa is the home of the negroes, who are -^^*^* '^'^■ 

divided into many tribes with different An African negro woman planting. 




EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT 419 

customs. Some are fierce and warlike ; otliers peaceful ; those dwelling 
in the forest live by hunting ; those upon the savannas, by primitive 
agriculture and by herding. For centuries they were captured by the 
whites and sold in slavery ; but the day of the white slave-trade is now 
almost past. In spite of the former frequency of slave-hunting raids, and 
the great destruction of life in the fierce tribal wars, there are many negroes 
left. With a fertile soil, and in a warm climate, they are able to support 
themselves with a minimum of work, especially along the rivers and on the 
savannas. 

While the forest and much of the sav.anna have been dominated by the 
negro even down to the present day, the arid sections of northern Africa 




Fig. 448. 
A pyramid in the desert near Cairo — one of tlie remarkable works of the ancient Egyj)tians. 

have been held by the whites since very early times. Near the border line 
between the two races there has been such a mixture of blood that the 
population is largely noe of half-breeds. 

Exploration and Settlement. — The Indies, famed for their precious 
stones, spices, and other valuable products, were reached by long 
journeys overland. But even before the famous voyage of Columbus, 
the Portuguese — the most progressive sailors of that clay — were 
engaged in an attempt to reach these distant lands by sailing around 
the southern end of Africa. After various voyages, the Cape of 
Good Hope was finally passed and the way to the Indies by water 
was opened in 1498. 

The Portuguese made settlements on the east and west coasts of Africa, 
and they still have extensive possessions there (Fig.2443). But progress 
toward development and settlement has been slow for various reasons, 
among which perhaps the most important is the fact that so much of 



420 AFRICA 

Africa is tropical. The desert is forbidding, and the hot, damp climate 
of the coastal strip, upon which colonies were naturally first established, 
was found particularly unhealthful (p. 417). In addition, travel into the 
interior was prevented by hostile hordes of blacks, and by the absence of 
navigable rivers. Moreover, those who were willing to leave Europe 
were more attracted toward the continents of Australia and America. 
Why should they be ? 

By far the most successful settlement in the newly discovered 
parts of Africa was that made by the Dutch at Cape Colony, a little 
later than their settlement of New York. As in the case of New 
York, the British seized their territory. 

During the nineteenth century Livingston, Stanley, and others 
entered the "dark continent"; and since their efforts, exploration 
has been rapid. Many European nations have taken part in the 
exploration, and as a result have claimed territory. But the British 
have been by far the most active. What other nations have posses- 
sions there ? (Fig. 443.) 

Northern Africa 

Political Divisions. — Much of northern Africa is such a desert 
that its inhabitants are few and scattered. It is, however, under 




Fig. 4i9. 
A nomad camp on the northern edge of the Sahara. 

the control of various nations. The greater part of the Sahara is 
claimed by the French, though the Spanish hold a small section on 
the western coast, and the British control both the Libyan desert 
and the Egyptian Sudan in the east. Along the Mediterranean 
coast are several well-settled sections, the best known being Egypt. 



THE SAHARA 421 

The four countries west of Egypt — Tripoli, Tunis, Algeria, and 
Morocco — are often called the Barhary States (the home of the 
Berbers). 

The Sahara. — From the Atlantic to the Red Sea, and from near 
the Mediterranean to the grass lands of the Sudan, there is almost 
unbroken desert — the famous Sahara. Its area is estimated to be 
from three to four million square miles, or about equal to that of 
the entire United States. It is a plateau of uneven surface, with 
mountain ranges here and there, and bordered on the north by the 
Atlas Mountains. The wind-swept highlands are bare and stony, 
while the lowlands have extensive areas of sand dunes. 

Much of the soil is fertile, and with rainfall would yield abun- 
dant crops. But nature has forbidden rain, and its surface is there- 
fore barren in the extreme. Only on the oases, of which there are 
some four hundred in the Sahara, is there the necessary drinking 
water which renders human life possible in the desert. 

Caravans cross this desert, one of the important routes being from 
Tafilet in Morocco, southward to Timbuktu. There may be from a thou- 
sand to fifteen hundred camels in one caravan, and a full year may be 
required to equip it. Each camel is carefully selected by the chief of the 
caravan, and many extra camels are taken along to replace those that give 
out on the journey. There is one driver for every dozen camels. 

Upon starting, the loads are carefully packed on the camels' backs, 
each animal bearing about three hundred pounds. A day's march lasts 
sixteen hours, the camels travelling some thirty abreast at the rate of 
about two miles an hour. Ordinary camels cannot travel more than three 
days without drinking ; but the better grades are able to go for six or seven 
days without water and with almost no food. The trip across the Sahara, 
from north to south, requires fully three months. Estimate the distance. 
At best nearly a third of the animals perish in the round trip ; and before 
the return journey is undertaken it is necessary for those surviving to 
have a rest of several weeks. 

An advance party precedes the caravan to make arrangements for 
camping and for water. Many roundabout journeys are necessary to pass 
deep valleys and plateaus, for caravans go around rather than over obsta- 
cles. The daytime is hot ; but as soon as the sun sets, the temperature 
rapidly falls and the nights become cold even in midsummer. 

There are dangers in the journey aside from that of thirst. Some- 
times sand storms arise; and although such a storm may not last a half- 
hour, it may destroy a whole caravan. The wind blows violently, and 
sand fills the air and drifts about in such quantities that animals and men 
alike are suffocated in the drifts. Also small caravans may be attacked 
by wandering tribes of warlike natives ; and near the southern edge of the 



422 



AFRICA 



desert the danger from attack by the lion is added. It evidently requires 
courage and great powers of endurance to engage in the caravan trade. 

Caravans which cross the desert carry the products of central 
Africa to the coast. These include ivory, skins, and ostrich feathers 
obtained by bartering with the negroes. 

Egypt and the Neighboring British Territory. — Egypt proper and 
the Libyan desert are parts of the broad Sahara and have all the 
features of the desert just described. Even at Cairo the average 
yearly rainfall is but an inch and a half. In climate, both for 
summer and winter, northern Egypt closely resembles the desert 
portion of western Arizona and southeastern California. 

The mie.— The Egyp- 
tian Sudan and the country 
south of it, on the other 
hand, have a tropical cli- 
mate, arid in the north, 
but warm and humid in the 
south, where the influence 
of the tropical rains is felt. 
The headwaters of the Nile, 
near the equator, are fed 
by such heavy rains that 
the river is able to flow 
across the desert in spite 
of the fact that no tribu- 
taries enter the lower half 
of its course. How great 
a distance is that? 

Without the Nile the 
whole of northern Egypt 
would be a sparsely inhabited desert (Fig. 448) ; but the precious 
river waters transform the section near the Mediterranean (Fig. 
451) into a great oasis which has become the seat of an important 
agricultural industry, and is densely populated. 

After leaving the region of equatorial rains and the savannas, the Nile 
crosses the desert through a valley — in places a thousand feet in depth — 
which it has cut in the plateau. In this part of its course there are several 
cataracts (see Fig. 443). The Nile resembles the Colorado Eiver of the 
United States, which, after leaving the Rooky Mountains, flows in a deep 
canyon across the arid plateau of Arizona; but the canyon of the Colorado 




Fig. 450. 
Sudanese people from the Egyptian Sudan. 



EGYPT 



423 



is inucli deeper than that of the Nile. Below Cairo the river leaves its 
narrow valley, divides into several channels, and flows across a plain (Fig. 
451). This plain is the delta which the Nile has built in the Mediterranean 
Sea during the ages that the river has been bringing sediment from its 
upper course. It is the Nile that suggested the geographical term, delta. 



Mediterrarxearv Seev 




Fig. 451. 

The lower Nile. The shaded area between the two deserts is farmiug land which is reached 
by water from the river. The numerous crossed lines are railways. Find the Pyramids. 
Why is the location at the head of a fertile delta, and at the outlet of a narrow river 
valley bounded by desert, a favorable one for a large city ? 

now applied to similar deposits at the mouths of rivers in various parts of 
the world. The word comes from the Greek letter delta (A), which has 
the form of a triangle. Notice that shape in Figure 451. 

When the rainy season comes to the Nile tributaries among the 
Abyssinian mountains, the river rises so high that it overflows large 



424 



AFRICA 



tracts of the broad delta below Cairo. The rise begins in June and 
reaches its height in October. By this overflow not only is the land 
irrigated, but a thin layer of flne mud is spread over the fields. This 
serves so to fertilize the soil that, year after year, heavy crops may 
be raised without making the soil sterile. 

Agriculture. — In consequence of these remarkably favorable con- 
ditions, the Nile delta has been occupied by an agricultural people 
from the very earliest times. It is still the seat of a great grain 
industry, producing wheat, corn, millet, and barley. Much rice and 
sugar-cane are also raised, and cotton which is of especial value 




Fig. 452. 
The Sphinx and two of the Pyramids. 

because of its long fibre. There are many vineyards, and orange, 
lemon, and fig groves ; and both along the Nile and on the oases of 
the desert there are groves of date palms (Fig. 448). Grazing is of 
importance in the Nile Valley, and on the neighboring plateau. The 
animals raised include the buffalo and camel in addition to sheep, 
goats, cattle, horses, and donkeys. 

TJie People. — The known history of Egypt reaches back several 
thousand years before the time of Christ. The fertile soil and favor- 
able climate, added to the protection from frequent wars which the 
surrounding desert and sea ai^orded, encouraged the development of 
industry and thrift. By the mixture of agricultural and pastoral 



EGYPT 



425 



races there arose a civilization in advance of that of the neigliboring 
sections of Europe and Asia. In fact, at the time wlien Europe was 
inhabited by barbarians, and the peoples of western Asia were unor- 
ganized, Egypt had made long advances in 
civilization. 

We read in the Bible of the Pharaohs who 
ruled over Egypt. Can you recall any of the 
Bible stories which relate to these rulers ; for 
example, the story of Joseph ? During those 
times the Egyptians built the obelisks (Fig. 453), 
the sphinx (Fig. 452), and those marvellous struc- 
tures, the pyramids (Fig. 448), which are really 
the tombs of kings. By a peculiar process they 
preserved the bodies of their dead, and these 
mummies may be seen in the museums of many 
large cities. Among the mummies are the remains 
of the Pharaohs themselves. 




Fig. 4.53. 
An obelisk in Egypt. 



In the movement westward of the people 
who dwelt along the eastern shores of the 
Mediterranean and farther east in Asia, Egypt 
became one of the highways of the world. 
Against its people many destructive wars were waged, and the coun- 
try has been repeatedly invaded. As other nations have advanced, 
the Egyptians have steadily lost ground. 

At present Egypt is required to pay annual tribute to Turkey, 
but she is otherwise practically independent of Turkey ; and the 
ruler, or Khedive, is an hereditary monarch. The government of 
Egypt was so bad that the Erench and British finally stepped in 
and took control of the finances of the nation. When the Erench 
declined to aid in subduing a rebellion in Egypt, the British alone 
assumed a large share in the control of Egyptian affairs. 

As a result of British direction there has recently been marked 
progress in Egypt. Extensive irrigation works have been under- 
taken, and the land area for cotton and sugar cane has thereby been 
greatly increased. By means of reservoirs and canals it is further 
proposed to reclaim thousands of square miles of the desert. Several 
railway lines have also been built (Eig. 451), including a part of 
the proposed line from Cairo to Cape Town. Outside of the Nile 
Valley, however, travel still depends largely upon the use of camels 
(Fig. 448). 



426 



AFRICA 



Suez Canal. — Northeastern Egypt includes the Isthmus of Suez, 
which connects Africa with Asia. This narrow neck of land has 
for centuries stood as a barrier to water travel from Europe to 
southeastern Asia, compelling European vessels to pass all the way 
around Africa in order to reach southern Asia. 

The Suez Canal, begun in 1859, was completed in 1869. It extends 
from Suez to Port Said (Fig. 443), and is eighty-seven miles long, with a 
depth of twenty-six feet and a width at the surface varying from sixty-five 
to one hundred and twenty yards. Its length is much greater than that 
of the proposed Panama Canal, but the difficulties of construction were 
less. The country is very level, and, as in the case of the proposed Nica- 




FiG. 454. 
The Suez Canal at Port Said. 



raguan Canal, a part of the course (about twenty-one miles) is through a 
lake. Ten vessels on the average pass through the Suez Canal each day. 
Estimate the distance saved by this canal in going from London to Calcutta. 
By agreement among nations it cannot be captured and closed in time of war. 

Cities. — At the head of the delta, just above the point where the 
Nile branches (Fig. 451), is Cairo, the capital and largest city of 
Egypt and, in fact, of all Africa. It is about the size of St. Louis, 
having a population of 570,000. This interesting place is visited 
each year by a stream of tourists, some seeking a winter health 
resort, others attracted by the strange life of the country and the 
remarkable ruins of the old civilization (Figs. 451, 452, and 453). 

Cairo itself contains the palace of the Khedive, several interesting 
mosques, and a museum in which are preserved many Egyptian antiqui- 



EGYPT 



427 




Fig. 455. 
An Arab school in the streets of Cairo. 



ties and works of art. The inhabitants also attract attention, for in the 
streets may be seen many people with different languages and peculiar 
customs. The differences among the people may be illustrated by the 
following fact : there are 
three Sabbaths each week, 
Friday, the Sabbath of the 
Mohammedans, Saturday, ob- 
served by the Jews, and 
Sunday, by the Christians. 

Alexandria, con- 
nected with Cairo by rail 
(Fig. 451) is the seaport 
of Egypt and the second 
city in size in the countr3^ 
The chief business is the 
export of cotton, sugar, 
grain, and other Egyptian 
products, and the importa- 
tion of manufactureclgoocls. 
More than half the trade is 
with Great Britain. 

The Barbary States. — Find the position of each of these four 
countries. Each borders the Mediterranean, but extends southward 
into the desert (p. 421.) 

The Atlas Mountains skirt the Mediterranean coast from the Atlantic 
to Tunis, where their projection into the Mediterranean forms the most 

northerly point in Africa. These 
mountains contain many valuable 
mineral products, including precious 
metals in Morocco and Algeria, and 
marble and alabaster in the latter 
country. 

Since the Atlas Mountains cause 
vapor to be condensed when winds 
blow from the ocean or from the 
Mediterranean, many of the valleys 
are well watered. Forests cover some 
of the mountain slopes, and one of 
the valuable trees is the cork oak, the 
bark of which is removed for ship- 
ment from Algeria to Spain and Portugal. Camels, sheep, goats, and 
cattle are raised among the mountains and upon the plateaus. 




Fig. 456. 
The costume of women in Algeria. 



428 



AFRICA 



Agriculture is carried on here and there, often by means of irrigation, 
with water supplied by the mountain snows and rains, as in southern 
California. The villages are therefore situated where valleys open to the 
plains. Among the crops produced, besides dates and grains, are figs, 
grapes, and olives. Wine from the grapes of Algeria is shipped in large 
quantities to Prance ; and the best olive oil and the best dates in the world 
come from Tunis. 

The original occupants of this region, the Berbers, still dwell on the 
desert and among the mountains, having been driven there long ago by 

invading Arabs. Most of the 
inhabitants are Mohammedans. 
Tripoli is still a Turkish prov- 
ince, but Tunis and Algeria 
are held by France. However, 
the native ruler, or Bey, of 
Tunis is permitted to direct 
affairs in his country under 
the supervision of France. 
Morocco is the only one of the 
Barbary States that maintains 
independence, being ruled by 
an absolute monarch, or Sultan. 
Can you suggest why the con- 
flicting interests of Spain, 
France, and England should 
prevent conquest by any one ? 
Conditions of life in Morocco 
are shown by the following : 
The writer once visited a school 
in Tangier consisting of a 
dozen boys from nine to ten years of age. The room where they studied 
received its only light from the open door, and it contained no seats, desks, 
or furniture of any kind. The children sat on the floor in a semi-circle 
around a long-bearded old man, who likewise sat on the floor, and the only 
object they had before them was a page from the Koran, or Mohammedan 
Bible. What does such a condition of education indicate in regard to 
progress ? If this is the case on the coast, almost within the shadow of 
Europe, what must be the condition farther inland ? 




Fig. 457. 
Church of Notre Dame in Algiers. 



The capitals are the principal cities among the Barbary States. 
Fez, one of the capitals of Morocco, is in the interior : but the 
Sultan and his court do not reside there all the year. Name the 
other capital. Tangier, on the coast, is better known. Why should 
it be ? In Algeria the seaport Algiers is the capital and largest 
city. It is an interesting place, combining many features of ancient 



SOLTHEBN AFRICA 429 

and modern times. Under the French it has become an important 
trading centre. The same is true of Tunis, the capital of the 
country by that name. Locate the capital of Tripoli. 

Southern Africa 

Comparison with Northern Africa. — In some important respects 
there is a resemblance between northern and southei-n Africa, 
although they lie in different hemispheres. What similarities are 
there in climate (p. 417) and physiography (p. 416)? There is a 



s^>i?iB7nfr '" "1 /-T^w T'W V-,f' TH\ V- r ;•,?»' imF"''''' " ^'gj^'"'' 'apS'"' "'P*'' »l»/'""iFl'V^^^ 




Fig. 458. 
A Zulu woman making a straw mat. 

resemblance, too, in the fact that both sections have long been 
settled by white men. What difference is there in the length of 
occupation by white men ? 

The People. — It is to the Dutch that we owe the first important 
development of South Africa. Settling at Cape Town, and then 
spreading over the neighboring region, they took possession of the 
country occupied by the negroes and introduced the European 
industries of farming and ranching. 

When Cape Colony came into possession of the British (p. 420), 
many of the Dutch remained ; but others emigrated, or " trekked," 
northward and found new homes in the interior. There they 
established two republics, the Transvaal and the Orange Free State, 
in which they desired to continue the customs of their forefathers 
and live in the pursuit of agriculture and herding. 



430 



AFRICA 




Fig. 459. 
A pineapple field in South Africa. 



Doubtless the Boers, as these people are called, would have been 
left to themselves but for the discovery of wonderfully rich depos- 
its of gold. The mines 
were developed by British 
IfT . ^. -vVv capital, and friction arose 

between the mine owners 
and the Boers. War fol- 
lowed, as a result of which 
the Transvaal and the 
Orange Free State were 
declared British colonies 
in 1900. 

At present, therefore, the 
British control a broad strip 
from the southern tip of 
Africa northward to the 
southern end of Lake Tan- 
ganyika. What are the names 
of the British colonies in South Africa (Fig. 443) ? What nations control 
the land to the east and west of the British possessions ? Besides the. 
Boers there are many British in South Africa, especially in Cape Colony 
and at the gold mines of the Transvaal. There are also large numbers of 
negroes in this region, particularly in the tropical section and in Zululand 
in northern Natal (Fig. 458), Some of them, like the Zulus, have fiercely 
opposed the encroachment of the whites and still maintain semi-independent 
states. They are, however, making progress toward civilization. 

Agriculture and Grazing. — Along the east coast, and in some of 
the interior valleys, agriculture is an important industry. Sugar, 
bananas, pineapples (Fig. 459), tea, coffee, and rice are raised near 
the coast, where the climate is warm and damp. But wheat, tobacco, 
vegetables, and grapes are produced in the cooler south, and upon 
the uplands wherever the rainfall is sufficient or irrigation possible. 

By far the greater part of South Africa is an arid plateau, and 
its elevation causes cold winters in spite of the latitude. Forests 
are absent, and little wood is found except that which comes from 
the thorny acacia bushes of the plains, and the willows and other 
trees that grow along the streams. Except in the real desert 
the grass springs into life after the summer rains (November and 
December), and the country becomes green and beautiful. Then 
follows a long drought, when the vegetation withers. But, as in 



SOUTHERN AFRICA 



431 



the arid part of western United States, the dried grass is a sort of 
natural hay upon which cattle and sheep thrive. 

Upon this plateau, therefore, immense numbers of cattle, sheep 
and goats are raised, and also many ostriches. ' It is estimated that 
in Cape Colony alone there are over eighteen million sheep and goats, 
one million cattle, and two hundred and fifty thousand ostriches. 
In consequence, the production of wool, hides, meat, and ostrich 
feathers is of great importance. Of what value are these products 
to Great Britain ? 

Mineral Wealth. — The discovery of gold in South Africa has 
brought great changes, as among the mountains in the arid section 




Fig. 460. 
Cattle in the Transvaal. 



This metal is found scattered through a 



of western United States 
conglomerate rock in the Transvaal, near the city of Johajstnesburg, 
which on that account has become the largest city of South Africa. 
This district has become the most important in gold production in 
the world; in 1898 more gold was mined here than in the entire 
United States. 

Other valuable minerals, including copper, iron, and coal, also 
occur; but as yet they have been little developed. At Kimberley 
in Cape Colony, however, are diamond mines, which now supply 
ninety-eight per cent of the world's diamond product. 

The diamonds occur as rounded crystals in a decomposed volcanic 
rock, and are obtained by digging out the soft rock and carefully re- 
moving the crystals. After this the crystals must be cut into the proper 



432 



AFRICA 



shape and polished. There are various grades, some clear and beautiful, 
others impure and dull. So productive is this deposit of precious stones 
that $160,000,000 worth have been removed in eleven years. There is 
only a limited demand for diamonds ; but the company in control is care- 
ful not to mine enough of them to reduce the price greatly. This is pos- 
sible, since the Kimberley mine owners have a practical monopoly of the 
diamond production of the world. 

Commerce and Cities. — The two chief rivers of South Africa are 
of little use as trade routes. The Orange River is not navigable, 
because of lack of water and the presence of rapids at the edge of the 
plateau. The other, the Zambezi, is navigable by small boats for a 




Fig. 461. 
Cape Town with Table Mountain (3500 feet liigh) in the distance. 

distance of three hundred miles from its mouth; but the climate 
near the coast, especially on the delta, is warm and unhealthful. 
Rapid water checks further navigation, and at one point there is a 
cataract, the Victoria Falls (Fig. 443), which rivals even Niagara in 
grandeur. This cataract has a width of over a mile and a height of 
four hundred and fifty feet. It is therefore both wider and higher 
than Niagara; but the volume of water is less. 

Nor is the coast especially favorable to commerce. For long 
distances there are no good harbors, while the river mouths are 
choked with sand bars which render entrance difficult. A break- 
water has made Table Bay a good port, and around its shores, 
beautifully situated at the base of the Table Mountain (Fig. 461), 



CENTRAL AFRICA 



433 



is Cape Town, the capital and largest city of Cape Colony. It is 
connected with the interior by a railway line, the southern end of 
the proposed railway from Cape Town to Cairo. 

A second important harbor is that of Delagoa Bay, upon ■which is situ- 
ated L0UBEN90 Marquez, the capital of Portuguese East Africa. Being 
connected by rail with the interior, this port has been much used for the 
shipment of Transvaal products. Durban, the seaport of Natal, is a 
small city also connected with the Transvaal by rail. The two principal 
interior cities are Kimberley and Johanjstesburg (p. 431). There is no 




Fig. 462. 

A scene at the market in Kimberley. Oxen are extensively used by the Boers as draught- 
animals. 

important town in German South Africa, which is for the most part 
an arid plateau. To what nation does Waljiscli Bay belong ? 



Central Africa 

This vast area is in large part a great unknown. Much of it is 
tropical forest ; but on the northern and southern sides are open 
savannas (p. 250). 

The Rivers. — Owing to the heavy rainfall of the forest belt, the 
rivers are large. The Nile and Zambezi, already described, and the 
Niger and Kongo, all receive water from the equatorial rains. The 
Niger is navigable in sections ; but there are rapids in some parts, 
and in its northern portion the river dwindles in size because of the 
dry climate. 

It is the immense Kongo, which empties into the sea a few 
degrees south of the equator, that offers the best means of entrance 
to Central Africa. Although it is interrupted by a series of falls a 
2f 



434 



AFBICA 



short distance from the coast, above Stanley Pool there are thousands 
of miles of navigable waters in the main river and its tributaries. 

It was Stanley who first explored the Kongo, in 1876 ; and since that 
time this part of Africa has been rapidly developing. Formerly it was 




Fig. 463. 
A steamer on the Kongo. 

necessary to carry goods around the raj)ids, each native porter carrying 
about sixty pounds. Only in this way was Stanley able to carry his boats 
to the navigable portion farther up stream. Now, however, a railway two 
hundred and fifty miles in length connects the lower Kongo with Leopold- 

ville on Stanley Pool above 
-^ the falls. From there, at all 
seasons of the year, steamers 
may go a thousand miles up 
the river and also into many 
tributaries. 

The People. — Very few 
Europeans have settled in 
Central Africa, and the native 
blacks live almost as their 
ancestors did. Most of the 
inhabitants live in ingeniously 
built huts clustered in villages 
(Fig. 464). They have a kind 
of tribal government, each 
tribe having a leader whose 
power is absolute, and under 
whom are minor chiefs. Some of the tribes are cannibals. In religion 
they vary greatly, though all are intensely superstitious (p. 244). 

Among the blacks none are more remarkable than the ^j?/(/mies whom 








Fig. 464. 
Hnts in a negro village in Africa. 



CENTRAL AFRICA . 435 

Stanley discovered in the equatorial forests, where large nurabers live in 
an area of about thirty thousand square miles. The adults are only three 
or four feet in height. They live exclusively by hunting, by gathering 
the vegetable products of the forest, and by theft from the neighboring 
agricultural tribes. Their villages are usually built in the forest where 
two paths cross, and the huts are shaped like a turtle's back, being about 
four and a half feet high, ten feet long, and five or six feet wide. In that 
hot climate they find need for little clothing. 

With a small spear, a short bow with poisoned arrows, and a knife, 
they hunt with wonderful skill, and by means of pitfalls they capture 
even the elephant. They know the forest intimately, and neither bird 
nor beast can escape them. According to Stanley they offer one of the 
greatest obstacles to exploration ; for they appear stealthily, attack a 
party with great courage, and then disappear in the trackless woods. 

Divisions of Central Africa. — European nations have been active 
in claiming the greater part of Central Africa ; but their control 
over the native inhabitants is merely nominal, and the boundaries of 
the different sections are not well defined. 

The Sudan includes the vast area between the Sahara and the 
tropical forest. What can you tell about its climate ? (p. 417). 
More than half of the Sudan is claimed by the French, and most of 
the remainder, including the Niger Territories and the JEgyptian 
Sudan, is held by the British. The inhabitants are nomadic in the 
north, and agricultural in the south, though they raise little more 
than is needed for their own use. There is some gold in the west ; 
but the principal products are ivory, ostrich feathers, and gums. 

East of the Sudan is Abyssinia, which is for the most part a rocky 
plateau crossed by mountains and difficult of access. Its condition is 
indicated by the fact that the capital is periodically changed when the 
supply of firewood is exhausted. It is evident, therefore, that there 
are no government buildings. The inhabitants are mainly whites 
belonging to very different tribes which are often hostile to one another. 
Many of the people still hold to Christianity, notwithstanding the inva- 
sion by Mohammedans nearly four centuries ago. Italy holds Eritrea 
and Italian Somaliland. What other nations occupy a part of the coast 
on the border of Abyssinia ? 

The map shows several small countries on the west coast of Africa in 
the part marked Uj^per Guinea. Find Loiver Guinea. The divisions col- 
ored pink belong to the British ; those marked green to the Germans. 
Find a section belonging to Spain. 

One of the divisions of Upjjer Guinea is Liberia, which is of special 
interest to Americans. It is a negro republic established by Americans 
as a home for freed slaves, and its capital, Monkovia, is named after 



436 



AFRICA 



President Monroe. No white man is permitted to become a citizen. 
Besides uncivilized negroes in the interior, the republic includes fully 
twenty thousand negroes with some knowledge of civilization, all living 
near the coast. The coastal strip is damp and unhealthf ul ; but behind it 
is the forest-covered plateau slope. The products are chiefly coffee, palm 
oil, and sugar. It was the example set by the British in founding Sierra 
Leone as a home for liberated slaves, that led to the establishment of the 
republic of Liberia. 

Kongo State, crossed by the equator and drained by the Kongo 
and its tributaries, was founded by the king of Belgium, who sup- 
ported Stanley in his explorations of this region. It is in large part 




A scene in tropical Africa. 

a forest-covered plateau ; but there are sections of grass land. 
Hordes of savages, including the pygmies, inhabit the forests and 
savannas ; the buffalo, elephant, and leopard live along the rivers ; 
and the roar of the lion is frequently heard. 

Thi'ough the building of the railway around the cataract of the 
Kongo, and by the aid of steamers above and below the falls, the 
resources of this great area are beginning to be drawn upon. From 
it are obtained large quantities of ivory, rubber, palm-oil, gum, and 
pepper, as well as tropical woods. 

East of the Kongo State are British and German territories. What 
are they called ? What is their climate ? What products would you 
expect ? Observe to what extent the British claim Africa. What break 



CENTRAL AFRICA 437 

is there in the British territory between the Cape of Good Hope and the 
Mediterranean ? What variety of climate does the British territory 
inchide ? 

Need of Railways. — One of the great needs of Central Africa is 
railways for transportation to and from the sea. The three large 
lakes, Nyassa, Tanganyika, and Victoria Nyanza, are of great service 
in the transportation of goods, and already there are steamers upon 
them. Elsewhere caravans of native porters bear the products on 
their backs, travelling along narrow paths through the forest. 

With British and German energy we may expect that railways 
will soon reach the various parts of the interior of Africa ; in fact, 
a railway to Victoria Nyanza is already well under way (Fig. 443). 

Islands near Africa 

The large island of Madagascar, which is larger than any of our 
States except Texas, is two hundred and thirty miles from the 
mainland. There is much highland in the country, especially on the 
eastern side ; but the coastal region is lowland. The island is con- 
trolled by the French, and produces cattle, hides, valuable tropical 
woods, rubber, and coffee. While there are some Arabs, and tribes 
of negro origin in the west, the natives are for the most part 
Malays, called ITovas, who came by water from the northeast. 

Of the many small islands near the coast of Africa the northernmost 
are the Madeira Islands on the west side. These, together with the Ca^je 
Verde Islands farther southwest, have belonged to Portugal since the early 
Portuguese voyages of discovery. The Spanish Canary Islands lie between 
these two groups. Pind other islands along the west coast (Fig. 443) 
which belong to Spain and Portugal. 

Ascension Island and St. Helena, south of the equator, are, like the 
above-named groups, volcanic. They belong to Great Britain, and St. 
Helena attained notoriety as the prison home of Napoleon Bonaparte. 
The principal small islands on the eastern side of Africa are Zanzibar 
(British) near the coast, and Beunion (French) and Mauritius (British) 
east of Madagascar. Locate each of these (Fig. 443). Find other French 
and British islands. These islands are of value as naval stations. Their 
inhabitants are engaged in fishing and in agriculture, raising sugar-cane 
and other tropical products. 

Review Questions. — (1) What is the shape of Africa? (2) Compare the 
coast of Africa with that of other continents. (3) Tell about the highlands ; the 
rivers and lakes. (4) Describe the belts of climate, and compare them with those 



438 AFRICA 

of South America. (5) Tell about the plant and animal life. (6) Tell about 
the people. (7) Tell about the exploration and settlement. (8) What have ' 
been some of the principal obstacles to such explorations and settlements? 

(9) Name and locate the Barbary States. (10) What portions of northern Africa 
are under the control of European countries? (11) Describe the Sahara. (12) De- 
scribe the caravan trip. (13) Tell about Egypt: the climate; the Mle River; 
agriculture; people and government ; Suez Canal ; principal cities. (14) Describe 
the Barbary States : their raw pi'oducts ; manufactures ; commei'ce ; inhabitants ; 
government. (15) State resemblances between northern and southern Africa. 

(16) Tell about South Africa : the people ; agriculture and grazing ; mining. 

(17) What about the value of the Orange and Zambezi rivers for commerce ? 

(18) Locate and tell about each of the cities : (a) Cape Town ; (b) Louren^o 
Marquez ; (c) Durban ; (d) Kimberley ; (e) Johannesburg. (19) Tell about 
Central Africa : the climate and rivers ; the people and their customs. (20) Name 
and locate the principal divisions of Central Africa. (21) Tell about : (a) the Su- 
dan; (&) Abyssinia; (c) Somaliland ; (d) Liberia; (e) Sierra Leone ; (/) Kongo 
State. (22) What about the need of railways? 

Review and Comparison. — (1) Give several reasons why Africa has been 
explored and settled so much later than either North or South America. (2) What 
rivers of North America resemble those of Africa in having rapids and falls that 
interfere with commerce? (3) Contrast the Mississippi River with the Nile. 
Make a drawing of each, showing the principal tributaries and towns, (-l) Com- 
pare the Kongo with the Missouri in length ; with the Amazon (Appendix). 
(5) Compare the area of Lake Victoria Nyanza with that of Lake Superior 
(Appendix). (6) Is Africa on the whole as well adapted to agriculture as is 
South America ? Give your reasons. (7) Make a sketch map of the Atlantic and 
compare the position of Africa with that of South America. What part of America 
is in the same latitude as the Sahara? (8) Cape Horn is how much farther south 
than Cape of Good Hope ? (9) Why is not a large part of northern South America 
a desert, like northern Africa? (10) Compare southern Africa with southern South 
America in products and importance. Why the difference ? 

Suggestions. — (1) What per cent of the present population of the United 
States belongs to the negro race? (2) How do the negroes compare with the 
Indians in their willingness and ability to adopt civilized customs ? (3) Read the 
Bible story of Joseph in Egypt. (4) Read the story of Moses. (5) Find out some 
facts about the Pyramids. (6) Why is England especially benefited by the Suez 
Canal? (7) What obstacles are in the way of building railways across the Sahara 
to take the place of caravans? (8) Read about our short war with Tripoli in 
1804. (9). Why was the southern point of Africa called the Cape of Good Hope? 

(10) Examine a diamond to see how it has been cut. (11) Find out something 
about missionary work in Africa. (12) What reasons can you give for sending 
missionaries there? (13) Find out about the peculiar animal life upon the island 
of Madagascar. (14) Compare Madagascar with Cuba in regard to latitude, area, 
products, and people. (15) Find some facts about Livingston, Mungo Park, Stan- 
ley, and other African explorers. (16) Read one of the books of these explorers ; 
you will find Du Chaillu's books on Africa very interesting. (17) Who were Bar- 
tholomew Diaz and Vasco Da Gama, and what part did they take in the discovery 
of the water route to India? (18) Find ou.t about Kriiger and the British war with 
the Boers in 1900. 

For References, see Teacher's Book. 



RABBIT 




r^ 



■ ^ 

i 



PLATYPUS 



The M.N.Co^aurPALO, 



KANGAROO 



Fig. -106. 

Some Australian animals. The platypus lays eggs like a bird or reptile. The kanga- 
roo, like other marsupials, carries its unprotected young in a pouch. Where else 
have we found large running birds like the emu ? 



S.GUA 

(To V. 




Fig. 467. 

Map Questions. — (1) Judging from the railways and cities, which is the best-settled 
part of Australia ? (2) Which part is least settled ? (3) What reasons can you suggest 
for these facts? (4) From the lakes and rivers what do you infer concerning the climate 
of the interior? (5) How does Tasmania compare in area with Pennsylvania? (Appendix). 



from 160° Gv 




^•--"^ / / / , AUSTRALIA 

aniatta I I 

NdRTH yAuokia.;4 ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC. 

iCi AKinJKV^^^ / Scale of Miles. 

jSLAND;ij^fy / 500 1000 

'f^_^.ifj/r/ T Cities with over 200,000 : . . . .SydllCy 

. , onnxm>S-'^~ NE^ Cities with 100,000 to -200,000 :... ijataviil 

I^A-*- ' oUU I ,1-1,4^ />VtIli„„ton, Cities with 50,000 to 100,000: .. AuckJaiid 

ISLAND.^^v&ff'^''>>"istchiiteh .^ Cities with 25,000 to 50,000 : Duiieilin 

„._ .^^ -CHATHAM IS. Stualler Places : Cooktowu 

/jVLiA\-kA!\\J (.Bntish) Capitals with less thau 25,000 : . . ..Perth 

STEWART \ fi — '' / / Capitals of Colonies : ® Other Places: • 

South C. / / Railroads thus: 

180° 170' 100° 150° U0° 



With your own state? (6) Make the same comparison for New Zealand. (7) Make a list 
af the island groups belonging to the United States; to Great Britain; Germany; the 
Netherlands; France. (8) What nations claim parts of Borneo? New Guinea? (9) Fin(> 

he area of each of these islands (Appendix) and compare it with the area of your own 

tate. 



•1^ 



III. AUSTRALIA AND ISLAND GROUPS 

Australia 

Physiography. — Australia lies apart from the rest of the world, 
an island continent in the water hemisphere and the only conti- 
nent wholly in the sonthern hemisphere. Isolated for ages, its plants 
and animals differ (Fig. 466) from those in other parts of the earth. 
With its area of nearly three million square miles, it approaches the 
LTnited States or Europe in size. But it has been settled by Euro- 
peans so recently, and so much of its surface is desert (Fig. 467), 
that it is much less densely populated than the other continents. 
Much of the interior is practically unexplored, partly because of 
the desert and partly because of the absence of interior navigable 
waters. 

The surface, like that of Ireland, suggests a plate in form, since 
the low interior rises gradually to plateaus and mountains which 
often descend steeply toward the sea. While there are some low, 
short ranges in the interior, the highest land is in the east, where the 
mountains run parallel to the coast. In the southeast some of the 
peaks reach a height of over a mile. 

The mountains of eastern Australia, like the Appalachians of ISTorth 
America, are the worn-down remains of an ancient mountain system. 
Still further like the Appalachians, they served to check the extension 
of early settlements inland. Tasmania is really a continuation of the 
eastern highland, as Newfoundland is a continuation of the mountains 
of eastern North America. 

The streams which flow eastward to the Pacific, cascade down 
the mountains in short courses. Of the others in eastern Australia 
some end in the lakes of interior basins, and some evaporate in the 
dry climate ; but many unite with the Darling and Murray rivers, 
which are at times navigable for long distances. During the dry 
summer season, however, all except the Murray may dwindle to 
mere chains of water holes. A wave-built bar at the mouth of the 
Murray closes it to ocean steamers, so that, unlike the Mississippi, 
no large cities have grown up along its banks. 

439 



440 



AUSTRALIA 



The coast line of Australia is so regular that for long distances 
there are no good harbors ; but the sinking of the land in the south- 
eastern part has caused some excellent ports. 

Off the northeastern coast is the Great Barrier Reef, the longest coral 
reef in the world. This has been built .by coral animals, which still thrive 
there in great numbers. A few openings allow ships to enter the quiet 
channel between the reef and the land ; but navigation is not easy, and 
only an experienced pilot can avoid the dangerous shoals. Small sail- 
boats carrying divers and their assistants, usually Malays, are engaged on 
this reef and the northern shores of Australia in fishing for pearls, pearl 
shell, and other products of tropical waters. 

Climate. — Since Australia lies within the belt of the southeast 
trade winds, the eastern highland has an abundant rainfall on its 
seaward side and is clothed with dense forests. After crossing the 

mountains, however, the 
winds are so dry that 
the forest gradually disap- 
pears, changing first to 
open, park-like woodlands, 
then to grass-covered up- 
lands, and finally to desert 
lowlands, still partly unex- 
plored. The low interior 
mountain ranges cause only 
a slight rainfall which sup- 
plies the salt lakes of the 
interior. 

During the southern 
winter the interior be- 
comes cold, and the heavy 
air presses outward toward 
the coast as cold land 
winds ; but during the sum- 
mer the dry interior is so intensely heated that monsoon winds blow 
from the northeast and bring equatorial rain to the northern coasts. 
In this section are found areas of tropical forest. Southwestern 
Australia and Tasmania are reached by the prevailing westerlies, 
with their cyclonic storms, which bring variable weather and rainfall, 
as in eastern United States. These rainy section are also clothed 
with forests. 




Fig. 469. 
Eucalyptus forest in Australia. 



PLANTS 



441 



It is therefore only alo-ng portions of the coast that there is 
enough rainfall for agriculture, while the interior, and much the 
greater part of the continent, is either arid 
or actual desert. Much of the interior is 
adapted to ranching, thoagh some parts are 
even too arid for that ; but the southeastern 
coast, whose equable climate reminds us of 
the Mediterranean, would support a dense 
population. 

Plants. — Australian vegetation is not 
only peculiar, but also strikingly adapted 
to the climate of the country. In the in- 
terior, as in other desert regions, grass and 
flowering plants have gained the power 
to make rapid growth and to mature their 
seeds quickly, so that a few days after a rain 
the barren sands become carpeted with green 
as if by magic. 




Fig. 470. 



Undergrowth in the Austral- 
ian forest. 



Among the desert grasses, one of the most remarkable is the porcupine 
grass which grows on the sandy plains of the northwest interior, and is 
so hard, wiry, and spiny as to prevent passage through it. Plants with 
leaves which taste of salt also thrive here, being fitted for growth on 
plains that are too dry and alkaline for grass. These -" salt bushes " are 
so valuable as forage for sheep and cattle that they are now introduced 
into the arid section of southwestern United States. 

The scrub trees that flourish in the arid interior have developed a 
foliage able to resist evaporation. For example, the gum trees (Eucalyp- 
tus) hold their narrow leaf blades vertically with only the edges toward 
the sun's rays ; the leaves of wattles (Acacia) and other plants have 
shrunk to thorns ; and some trees secrete odorous oils which check 
evaporation. The leaves are too tough and leathery to wilt, and their 
dull greens give a sombre tone to the scattered woods. In these interior 
forests, which the settlers call " scrub," the thorny acacia and the close- 
set stems of the gum — rising to a height of a dozen feet — form a thicket 
through which a lost traveller may wander until death relieves his 
thirst. 

On the equable rainy slopes near the coast some of the gum trees are 
giants, in some cases four hundred feet in height. They rival the " Big 
Trees " of California, which also thrive where damp winds blow from the 
ocean. The undergrowth of the forest (Fig. 470), which is almost tropical 
in character, includes tree ferns, palms, and orchids. These dense woods 
are called the " bush." 



442 



AUSTRALIA 




History. — When discovered, Australia was sparsely settled by blacks 

allied to the negroes of Africa, but differing from them in many respects. 

Of these savages it is estimated that about 

seventy thousand remain, of whom about a third 

still wander in the wild interior, scantily clad 

(Fig. 471), building the rudest of shelters, and 

gaining their living by hunting. They still use 

that peculiar weapon, the boomerang, which, 

when properly thrown, will fly in curves and 

even return to the thrower. 

Although for a long time it had been known 

that there was an Australian continent, settle- 
ments were not made there until 1788. Neither 

the country nor the products were tempting to 

the early Spanish and Dutch explorers, and 

those nations colonized other lands of greater 

promise. It was not until the famovis English 

navigator. Captain Cook, led an expedition to 

this southern continent that the fertile sou.th- 

eastern coast was discovered- 

For a time the distant land was used as a 

regular penal station to relieve the crowded 

condition of English jails, and naturally free 

settlers came to the country slowly. But their 

number gradually increased, and, after long agitation, the transportation 

of criminals was stopped. 

Almost at the same time that gold was discovered in California it 

was also found in southeastern 
Australia, and tens of thous- 
ands of people rushed there 
to wash the sands for the 
precious metal. Since the 
miners needed supplies, many 
of the settlers turned their 
attention to other industries, 
especially agriculture and 
grazing. Therefore in Aus- 
tralia, as in California, the 
gold mines led quickly to the 
development of the country's 
resources. 

New South Wales, as the 
first colony was called, finally 
grew so large, and the settle- 
ments were so scattered, that 
it became difficult to control it 



Fig. 471. 
An Australian savage. (See 
also Fig. 273. ) The boy has 
a boomerang in his hand. 




Pupul.ition 

_, I e^^ thin 

□ 1 111 S luire M 

□ 1 2i ptr Sq. Mil ^ 
C3 2j lio per Sq Mi\ 
^ 12d-jO0 per Sq Mil 
Cities vith o\er lUllUOO 
Inhabitants are sbo»'D, 



AdelaiYi-fAcQ; 

OCEAN °r-j- 



Fig. 472. 

Density of population in Australia and neighboring 
islands. 



PEOPLE AND GOVERNMENT 



443 



under a single government. Consequently Tasmania, Victoria, and Queens- 
land were successively set off as separate colonies. South Australia and 
West Australia, however, were settled as distinct colonies. 

The colonies prospered under their popular government, each with its 
own laws, some having free trade, some imposing tariffs on goods imported 
from other colonies. Common interests, however, early awakened a desire 
for union ; and finally, on January 1, 1901, they were united to form the 
Commonwealth of Australia. This new 
commonwealth has a government similar 
to that of Canada, and is independent of 
England in all matters excepting those 
which affect the British Empire as a 
whole. The population, which equals 
that of the United States when her 
Constitution was adopted, is rapidly 
growing. 

Nearly all the Australian settlers 
have come from the British Isles, and 
the unity of the race has led to a peace- 
ful growth. As in England, education 
has been encouraged, church schools now 
being replaced by practically free, com- 
pulsory education in public schools. 
There are colleges at the capitals, and 
two important universities. The Eng- 
lish love of outdoor sports is fully main- 
tained, and great skill is naturally 
developed in a climate where it is possible to practise cricket, football, 
tennis, and rowing all the year round. 

Sheep Raising. — Although it was gold that brought population 
to Australia, her greatest wealth lies in her flocks of Merino sheep. 
Australian wool is the finest in the world. Sheep were first known 
in Asia, where doubtless they were originally wild animals ; and 
the ancestors of the Merino were such as tliose tended by Jacob, 
From Asia the breed spread along the Mediterranean and found in 
Spain a favorable, dry climate. From this point flocks were taken 
to the early Dutch colony of South Africa and thence to Australia. 
The Merino sheep had for centuries been carefully tended in Europe 
and separated from coarse-wooled varieties ; and when it was found 
that the climate and natural herbage of Australia really improved 
the quality of their wool, the English demand for that product led 
to a rapid development of the sheep-raising industry. It has now 
spread to the newly discovered pastures west of the mountains. 




Fig. 473. 

The last Tasmanian, a race now 
entirely extinct. 



444 AUSTRALIA 

In the early days of Australia the flocks were reared upon the unfenced 
government land, as in western United States (p. 143). The sheep were 
driven to pasture and water, and cared for at night by lonely shepherds, 
much as in the days of David. But now the land is largely fenced with 
wire, each sheep station having its own " runj" or ranch. The largest 
ranches contain fully a hundred thousand sheep, and employ men enough 
to make a little village, with a store, a church, and a school. As in 
Argentina, each run is divided into sections, or ^^ paddocks,"" by wire fenc- 
ing, so that the sheep of different ages and conditions may be separated. 
The mildness of the climate makes it unnecessary to provide winter pro- 
tection for the animals, and now that the wild dogs have been exterminated, 
the sheep no longer need much care from shepherds. 

Animal Products. — To-day grazing is the characteristic and most 
important occupation in Australia. There are over a hundred mill- 
ion sheep, and fully half the exports consist of wool ; but frozen or 
canned mutton and beef, together with tallow and hides, are also 
sent to England. Horses are bred for export, and cattle and swine 
are raised in large numbers. While the sheep graze in the arid inte- 
rior, cattle are more numerous in the districts where there is heavier 
rain. Many cattle, especially near the coast, are raised for their 
dairy products, and butter is exported to England. At the season 
when the cows of Belgium and Denmark are stalled because of the 
cold, the dairy herds of New South Wales are feeding on fresh pas- 
tures. Explain the causes of the difference. 

Farming. — Since agriculture secures a larger return from the 
soil than grazing, sheep have been driven from the damp lowlands 
and from those portions of the plateaus where the rainfall is sufti- 
cient for crops. Even in the interior there is farming where irriga- 
tion is found possible. In some cases water is supplied from streams ; 
in others, from artesian wells. 

Wheat is the most important crop aside from hay, and enough is 
raised to place Australia twelfth among lands raising this grain. 

The farm products are distributed according to climate. ¥or example, 
while oats and other hardy grains increase southward to Tasmania — since 
cold increases in that direction — corn is important only from New South 
Wales northward. There are large sugar plantations on the warm coast 
of Queensland ; and in western Australia, where there are gold mines in 
the arid interior, much hay is raised for the animals employed at the 
mines. 

As in our Pacific states, fruits are an important product. They range 
from tropical varieties on the northern coast to oranges and other warm 



SHEEP 



445 



temperate fruits southward, and finally, in the highlands and in Tasmania, 
to the orchard and small fruits of the cool temperate lands. In Victoria 
and South Australia, vineyards for the production of wine are of impor- 
tance. Some of this fruit raising is carried on by the aid of irrigation, as 
for instance in the Mu^rray River Valley, where the water is supplied by 
the melting snows of the mountains. In what months would the snows 
melt there? 

Mining. — The gold of Australia, like that of California, was first 
obtained from the gravels, and mines were later opened along the 
veins in the mountain rocks. Unlike the condition in western 
United States, however, absence of water has prevented hydraulic 
mining on a large scale. Gold mining is still of great importance, 




Fig. 474. 
Sydney harbor. 



Australia ranking second among gold-producing nations (Fig, 498). 
New deposits are discovered as the country is explored, the recent 
development of western Australia being largely clue to such dis- 
coveries. 

Copper mining greatly aided in the early development of South Aus- 
tralia, and rich copper mines are now worked in Tasmania. Silver and 
tin are other important mineral products. Coal is well distributed and of 
good quality. The best-developed field is near the coast of New South 
Wales, and some coal is exported. Rich iron ores, together with lime- 
stone, are found associated with these coal fields, and the mining and 
working of iron will follow with the growth of the country. 

Manufacturing. — Some wool is manufactured into cloth ; some leather 
is tanned and made into shoes ; and much flour is made from the wheat. 
There are sawmills and planing mills ; and other forms of simple manu- 



446 



AUSTRALIA 



facturing are carried on. But for the most part the raw products of Aus- 
tralia are shipped abroad to be manufactured. Most of these products go 
to England, and the commonwealth depends upon the mother country for 
most of its manufactured articles. Australia is passing from the pastoral 
to the agricultural stage of her development, and the stage of extensive 
manufactures is yet to come. 

Cities. — Australian cities have grown very rapidly, and one- 
thircl of the people live in the capitals of the six colonies. Favored 
as the seats of government and as seaports, and connected with the 
interior by government railways, these capitals have become the 
leading commercial centres. They are characterized by fine govern- 




FiG. 475. 
A view of a part of Sydney. 



ment buildings, and by abundant provision of parks and gardens 
for the people. Their large suburbs afford homes for the working- 
men and save them from the crowded life in tenement houses. 

MELBOUE.NE, the largest city in Australia and the capital of 
Victoria, is beautifully situated at the head of a broad harbor. 
Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, founded in 1788, and, 
therefore, the oldest city of Australia, is noted for its fine harbor 
(Figs. 474 and 475). At this point the coast faces deep water for a 
hundred miles ; it consists of coves alternating with headlands and 
is dotted with fine residences set in park-like grounds. Both of 
these cities rank among the great seaports of the British Empire. 
Adelaide is a third large city. Of which division is it the capital? 
Name the other capitals. 



AGBICULTUEE AND MINING 447 

Since nine-tenths of the Australians live on the coast lands, much of 
the commerce is carried on by means of steamboats, and most of the cities 
are seaports connected by rail with the interior farms, mines, and sheep 
country. A few mining centres, like Ballarat and Bendigo in Victoria, 
have become large towns. Ballarat owes its growth partly to its trade as 
the centre of a fine farming and grazing country. 

Island Groups 

New Zealand. — More than a thousand miles southeast of Australia 
are the two large, mountainous islands of New Zealand. In the 
South Island there are great glaciers among the mountains, while in 




Fig. 476. 
A view in New Zealand. 

the North Island there are active volcanoes, and also hot springs and 
geysers, like those of the Yellowstone National Park. 

Since these islands lie in the course of the storm}^ westerlies, 
there is heavy rainfall on the western slopes. Therefore the moun- 
tains are clothed with forests of pine and other trees, with many 
kinds of ferns and tree-ferns beneath. On the lee or eastern slopes 
the rainfall is less, and the land is covered with wiry grasses. 

In the south the crops are those of the cool temperate belt ; but 
in the north the climate is mild enough for oranges. Can you sug- 
gest how ocean currents may influence the temperature of the north 
and south ? (Fig. 267). What effect must the presence of water on 
all sides have upon the temperature ? 

New Zealand is so distant from other lands that few of the larger 
animals, except birds, have ever reached the islands. The native peo- 
ple, or Maoris, who must have come to the islands in boats, were a hardy, 



448 AUSTRALIA 

warlike race, living in protected villages, amidst cultivated fields. Their 
opposition to newcomers delayed settlement by the English until a half- 
century after the founding of Sydney. They are now overpowered, and 
those that survive live mostly in the interior of the North Island. Many 
have so fully adopted civilized ways that they are allowed representatives 
in the legislature. 

As in Australia, pastoral industries take the lead. There are twenty 
million sheep, and frozen mutton and wool are exported to England. 
Cattle are likewise kept, and butter is exported. Agriculture is important, 
especially in the districts of fertile volcanic soils on the North Island ; but 
much land that is suited to farming has never been cleared of forest. 
There are both gold and coal mines among the mountains ; and from their 
slopes are obtained valuable timber and a gum used for varnishes. Manu- 
facturing is only slightly developed, and is chiefly for home use. 

Although the industries and life of this English colony resemble those 
in Australia, its interests are so different that they have prevented its 
joining the Australian federation — just as the island colony of New- 
foundland has declined to join the Dominion of Canada. The situation 
of these islands in the temperate zone is favorable to rapid progress ; and 
the vigorous immigrants from the British Isles have developed the 
resources wonderfully, and have established one of the best governments 
in the world. 

Many short lines of railway connect the settled interior with the sea- 
ports ; roads and stage lines extend to the more distant districts ; and 
steamers ply around the coasts and to distant countries. There are four 
prominent cities of nearly the same size, the smallest of which is Wel- 
lington, the capital, and the largest, Auckland, about as large as Duluth 
in Minnesota. 

The East Indies. — Between Asia and Australia are hundreds of 
islands, some very large, others so small that they find no place on 
our map. Of these the great majority have' animals, plants, and 
people of Asiatic origin. New Guinea, however, which is nearest 
to Australia, bears a resemblance not to Asia but to Australia. It 
is, therefore, usually considered a part of Australasia, while the 
islands to the west and northwest are classed with Asia. 

Neiv Cruinea, north of Australia, is one of the largest islands in 
the world, having an area equal to Texas and Pennsylvania com- 
bined. Although three times the size of New Zealand, it contains 
a smaller population, composed mainly of savages (Figs. 477 and 
448). This difference is due to its position in the torrid zone. The 
heavy tropical rainfall has clothed most of its surface with dense 
forests, so that the high mountain ranges and the unhealthful low- 
lands of the interior are almost unknown. 



ISLAND GROUPS 



449 




Fig. 477. 
Houses in the trees in New Guinea. 



While the islands farther west are overrun with Malays from Asia^ the 
natives of New Guinea resemble the native Australians. The animal 
life also resembles that of Australia, 
a fact indicating that this island, 
like Australia, has long been sepa- 
rated from Asia. Former connection 
with Australia is further indicated 
by the fact that the two are now 
separated only by a shallow sea. 

The three nations that claim 
New Guinea maintain only trading 
stations on the coast ; and the 
tropical forests, the fertile soils, 
and the minerals are yet to be 
utilized. 

The East Indies proper also 
have a tropical climate, and are 
clothed with dense forests in 
which the elephant and rhino- 
ceros, as well as other Asiatic 
animals, are still found. Most 
of the natives are Mohammedan Malays from Asia, but some of 
them are pagans. 

The Philippine Islands, which belong to the United States, are 
really a northern extension of the East Indies. What can you tell 
about them? (p. 165). 

Many of the other islands of this region, including Sumatra, 
Java, the Celebes, and a large part of Borneo and New Guinea, are 
Dutch colonies. What nation controls the island of Timor? To 
which nation does northern Borneo belong? Borneo, with a greater 
area than all the New England and Middle Atlantic states together, 
is one of the largest islands in the world. The immense size of these 
islands is indicated by the fact that Sumatra is larger than Califor- 
nia, while Java has a greater area than New York State. 

All of the larger islands are mountainous; in fact, they are parts of 
mountain ranges rising out of the sea, and among them are many active 
volcanoes, some of which have had terribly destructive eruptions. There 
are lowlands near the coasts, and many coral reefs skirting them. Indeed, 
a large number of the smaller islands are merely coral reefs slightly 
elevated above the ocean. 

Since they are so near the equator, and therefore have a heavy rain- 
fall, these islands have tropical products. The forests supply valuable 
2g 



450 



AUSTBALIA 



woods and gums, including gutta-percha and camphor. Large areas, 
especially in Java, are highly cultivated and produce quantities of rice, 
sugar-cane, and coffee. In the production of the last two articles Java 




Fig. 478. 
A New Guinea village built in the water for protection against enemies. 



is one of the leading regions of the world (Figs. 506 and 507). Among 
the noted products of the East Indies are spices, such as pepper, cloves, and 
nutmegs; in fact, one of the island groups is known as the Spice Islands. 

What is the other name ? There 
are also valuable minerals, includ- 
ing tin, gold, and precious stones. 
The Dutch have been remark- 
ably successful in managing their 
East Indian colonies, which are a 
source of great wealth ; yet the 
larger islands are so mountainous, 
and the forests so dense, that great 
areas are scarcely known. The 
Dutch East Indies are fifty times 
as large as the Netherlands and 
have seven times as many inhabi- 
tants, or nearly half as many as 
those of the United States. 



' 






^ 


It^ifin 


r-'*° 






mHI 




m 


H 


^s 




B 


^Rm^ 


& 


^si 





Fig. 479. 

A native house in the Friendly (Tonga) 

Islands. 



The largest city among these islands is Manila, in the Philip- 
pines ; and next in size is Batavia, the centre of the Dutch colonial 
government. 



NEW ZEALAND 



451 




Islands of the Pacific. — The map (Fig. 403) shows the western Pacific 
dotted with island groups ; but these islands are so small that, although 
there are many hundreds of them, their combined areas are little more 
than half that of New Zealand. They are the higher peaks of great 
mountain folds rising from the ocean floor. Many of them are volcanoes, 
others submerged peaks upon 
which corals have grown and 
formed coral islands. 

What names among them 
have you heard before ? To 
what nations do the groups 
belong ? Although under the 
control of these foreign na- 
tions, the local government 
is usually administered by 
native chiefs. 

Together these islands 
have a population of less 
than a million ; but the 
natives have been decreas- 
ing in numbers, partly "be- 
cause of drunkenness and 
disease following contact 
Math Europeans. Although 
missionaries have converted 
many to Christianity, others remain savages, and some practise cannibal- 
ism. They are the best sailors of all the uncivilized races, and in past cen- 
turies reached the islands in boats from Asia, going from group to group. 

There is a marked difference between life on the " low," or coral, and 
that on the "high," or volcanic, islands. Volcanic islands, like Fiji, the 
peaks of which rise several thousand feet, are heavily forested on their 
rainy, windward slopes ; and their fertile soil encourages agriculture. Thus 
the coffee plantations of New Caledonia and the sugar plantations of Fiji 
recall the products of the volcanic Hawaiian Islands. As in Hawaii, also, 
bananas and pineapples are raised for home consumption and for export. 

On the low coral islands, on the other hand, the cocoa palm is the main- 
stay of human life, supplying food, clothing, shelter, boats, many utensils, 
and the means of trade as well. Copra, the main export from Samoa and 
from many of the Pacific islands, is the dried meat of the cocoanut, of value 
for its oil and as food. 

Review Questions. — Australia. (1) What about its position, area, and 
population ? (2) Wliere are the mountains ? (3) What resemblance is there to 
North America? (4) How do the streams vary in the several sections? (5) 
What is the nature of the coast? (6) Tell about the Great Barrier Reef. 
(7) How does the rainfall vary in the different parts of Australia? Give the 
reasons. (8) What differences in plant life are thus caused? (9) What is the 



Fig. 480. 
A native village in the Fiji Islands. 



452 EEVIEW QUESTIONS 

influence on industries? (10) Mention some of the ways in which the plants 
are adapted to their surroundings. (11) Tell about the forests. (12) Tell about 
the natives. (13) Give reasons why Australia was not settled earlier. (14) What 
finally led to rapid settlement and development? (15) TeU about the government. 
(16) Tell about sheep raising : the Merino sheep; introduction to- Australia ; de- 
velopment of the industry ; care of the sheep. (17) What are the animal products ? 
(18) Tell about farming : water for irrigation ; principal products ; variation in 
crops according to climate. (19) AVhat mineral products are found ? (20) What 
is the condition of manufacturing? (21) Why are the capitals so important? 

(22) Name and locate the three largest cities; what can you tell about each? 

(23) What about other towns ? 

Island Groups. (24) Tell about New Zealand : its surface features ; climate ; 
native animals and people ; leading industries ; development ; cities. (25) Tell 
about New Guinea : size ; position ; climate ; people ; animals ; resemblance to 
Australia; resources. (26) What about the animals, plants, and people of the 
East Indies? (27) To what nations do the islands belong? (28) What about 
their size? (29) Tell about their physiography, climate, and products. (30) 
What about the success of the Dutch in the East Indies and the extent of their 
possessions there? (31) Tell about the small island groups: their names; 
position ; origin ; government ; people ; products. 

CoMPAEisoNS. — (1) Australia resembles South Africa in its surface, climate, 
occupations, and products. State how this is true. (2) Australia also resembles 
western United States in climate, in occupation and products, and in the order of 
development of her resources. Describe these points of resemblance. (3) lu 
what respects does southern South America (Chile and Argentina) resemble 
Australia? (4) What differences ai'e there in climate due to diiference in form of 
the two land masses ? (5) What differences in the present condition of develop- 
ment, due to the history and the races of each? (6) What part of Australia has 
the same latitude, in the southern hemisphere, that southern Florida has in the 
northern? (7) Which of our states most nearly equals New Zealand in area? 
(8) What peninsula of Europe resembles New Zealand in shape ? How do the 
two countries compai'e in area? In population? (9) What advantages over 
Australia has the United States enjoyed in that it has attracted settlers from so 
many different nations? (10) What part of South America most resembles the 
East Indies in climate and products? INIake the same comparison for North 
America. 

Suggestions. — (1) If it were within your power, how would you arrange 
the highlands of Australia so as to secure the most even distribution of rain ? 
(2) Estimate the greatest length of New Zealand. (3) Estimate the distance 
from Batavia to Manila. (4) Write your impression of the climate of Melbourne 
in January ; in July. (5) Through some fruit dealer obtain a cocoanut in its 
husk and examine it. (6) Read Whittier's poem on the Palm Tree. (7) Learn 
something about the work of missionaries in the small Pacific islands. (8) Col- 
lect pictures for the school, showing the islands and their life. (9) By what routes 
can one go from New York City to Australia? Through what waters? Which 
would be the shortest? About how many miles? (10) Answer the same ques- 
tions for a voyage from New York to Manila. (11) Read in Tarr's " Elementary 
Geology " (pp. 251-256) about the origin of atolls. (12) Read about the eruption 
of Krakatoa (same book, p. 343) in the Sunda Strait, near Batavia. 

For References, see Teachers Book. 



THE UNITED STATES COMPARED WITH OTHER 

COUNTRIES 

Area and Population. — In spite of the vast extent of the United 
States, there are three empires in the Old World with a greater 



BrttLsfv EfThpire 



nussianJEmfltre cfvtrvese 



UrUCeeL 
States Brazil 




Fig. 481. 
Area of the five largest nations. 

area. Which are they? (Fig. 481.) Which country is fifth in 
size ? Compare the United States with each of these in area. 
The United States also 



hthjium 



England ino 



Japan 2Si 



Germany 250 



Spain 80 



ranks fourth in population 
(Fig. 483). Name the five 
most populous countries 
in the order of their rank. 
What facts do you dis- 
cover by comparing Fig- 
ures 481 and 482 ? Figure 
482 shows the density of 
population., or the number 
of people per square mile, 
in some of the countries 
in the world. From this 
it will be seen that the 
United States is very 
thinly settled, compared 
with many countries. Com- 
pare the United States in this regard with Belgium, England 
Cuba, Mexico, and Canada. 

453 



C.Colony 



Brazil . 



Argentina 3 Canacia 



Mraliai.22 



Fig. 482. 
Density of population of some of the countries. 



454 



COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 



Chinese Envplre^iush. Empire 



402.680.000 







J8 3,9 00,000 



Ernptre K!r^*„„ 



i.zBMm.0m 



Fig. 483. 
The five most populous nations, 1900. 



Leading Raw Products. — Nevertheless, the United States leads the 
world in many very important respects and approaches leadership in 
several others. Figure 484 shows that no nation is a close rival to 
us in the production of corn. What countries, however, raise large 




Fig. 484. 
Sketch map to show the approximate distribution of corn. 

quantities of it ? Why is no corn raised in the British Isles ? Qd. 
286.) Wheat is more widely cultivated than corn (Fig. 485). Yet 
we are far in the lead in that grain (Fig. 486), Point out (Fig. 485) 
the leading wheat fields of the world. Which sections are important 




Fig. 485. 
Approximate distribution of wheat. 



COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 



455 



United States 



flusstart 
Empire 



Brtttstv 



Austria 



India jjunffor}; 




Fig. 486. 
The five leading wheat-producing countries^ 1898. 

for both wheat and corn ? On which side of the Atlantic is wheat 
raised farthest north ? Why ? 

Cotton is limited to warm climates (Fig. 487), so that compara- 
tively few countries raise it. Name the five that lead in its pro- 




FiG. 487. 
Approximate distribution of cotton. 

duction (Fig. 488). To what extent does the output of the United 

States surpass that of the four other countries together ? In what 

parts of the United States is most cotton manufacturing carried on ? 

What other countries have 

Unit ed. States IruUa 2,Z7J:ZOO 

China i5Z0,000 



J3alesgfJ00lbs 



India. 



important cotton-manufac- 
turing industries ? 

Note the distribution of 
8hee]) and cattle (Fig. 489). 
What is our rank in the pro- 
duction of ivool? (Fig. 490.) 
Yet we consume much more 
than we raise. Recall some 
facts concerning sheep rais- 
ing in Australia, Argentina, and the United States 
have important woollen manufacturing f 




^^^^^^^^to^ 



Effypt izmooo 
Korea WO.OOO 



Fig. 488. 
The five leading cotton-producing countries, 1898. 



What nations 



The extreme importance of coal and iron for manufacturing pui 



456 



COMPARISON OF COUNTBIES 




Fig. 489. 
Approximate distribution of sheep. 



poses has often been emphasized. But Figure 491 represents the 
coal fields as very limited. What countries have little or none ? 
Name the leading coal-producing sections, and state the rank of the 
United State in this mineral (Fig. 492.) 



Australasia 



Russia 



U nited Sts. United 
\Kingdom 




2r2t9t330 



Fig. 490. 
The five leading wool-producing countries, 1899. 

Is iron ore more or less widely distributed than coal ? (Fig. 493.) 
How does the United States rank in the output of this mineral (Fig. 
493) ; also in the production of pig iron (Fig. 494), which demands 
coal as well as iron ore? How does the output of coal and iron 




Fig. 491. 
Approximate distribution of coal. 



COMJPABISON OF COUNTRIES 



467 



Unite A States Great Britain, 



2S2,HJ,5Q7 

TOTXS 




2^6^9J.Z00 



Germany 



Austria. 
fiun^ryfYance 



i^'i^S/QG 



Aust.Hun^. 39,3]S.S/G 



Fig. 492. 
The five leading coal-producing countries, 1899. 

correspond to the importance of countries as manufacturing nations ? 
(Fig. 500.) 

Where are the principal s^7•yer-mining sections ? (Fig 495.) And 
how do we compare with other countries in this product? (Fig. 496.) 
Notice to what extent the world is indebted to the New World for 




Fig. 493. 
Approximate distribution of iron mines. 



silver. Tell about the distribution of gold (Fig. 497) and give our 
rank in the production of that metal (Fig. 498). How does the 
value of the total gold production compare with that of silver in the 
five leading regions for each ? , 



Ur\,ttetlState3 



UVtl. irtrvydom Cerrrvan-y 



Flussta/ 




Fig. 494. 
The five leading countries in the production of pig iron, 1898. 



458 



COMPABISON OF COUNTBIES 




Fig. 495. 
Approximate distribution of silver mining* 



The United States leads the world in the production of petroleum, 
or mineral oil, the second most important district being in Russia 
near the Caspian Sea. Other districts produce little petroleum. 



Mextco 


United Stcvtea 




$71,902,500 


$70,806,600 


Bolivia $iu,o2o,5oo 
AustralasUi j^„ll^,t^ 


$16,WS,0(jO 




cntie 






-"=^s==_ 






ChUe 


$8,070,500 



Fig. 496. 
The five leading silver-producing countries, 1899. 

Manufacturing and Commerce. — According to Figure 499 on what 
two continents is there the greatest development of manufacturing ? 
What other smaller sections are active in this industry ? Consider- 
ing the abundance of our raw materials and the energy and intelli- 




FiG. 497. 
Approximate distribution of gold mining. 



COMPARISON OF COUNTBIES 
So.A/rlcan Rep. Australia Un itpri States 



459 



$r2,961^01 



71,306.150 



70.096.02I 



Russia Canndn 



23.963.017 



21.049.730 



Fig. 498. 
The five leading gold-producing countries, 1899. 

gence of our people, it is not surprising that we surpass all other 
countries in such work (Fig. 500). State the rank of other leading 
nations in this occupation. 

In provision for transportation hy rail the United States also takes 
the leading place. It has by far the greatest number of miles of 




Fig. 499. 
Approximate distribution of manufacturing. 

railway of any nation (Fig. 501), though several small European 
countries have a greater development of railways in proportion to 
their area. The United States ranks second in provision for 
transportation hy ivater (Fig. 502). State the rank of the five chief 
countries in total length of railways, and in merchant marine. 
Give reasons why the United Kingdom should lead in merchant 

United States 



7200 milUonDollari Gt. Britain 








Germany 
2,9C0 


Finance 


Russia 


4.W& 


2, -too 


1,300 













Fig. 500. 
The five leading manufacturing countries, 1888. 



460 



COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 



Unit ea States 



Ftiv33la GerTnanyFrancemd. Kin atlom 



marine (p. 298). Whj^ should Norway be of importance in this 

respect ? (p. 330.) 

All these facts 
prepare us for Fig- 
ure 503, which shows 
that the United 
States is the wealth- 
iest nation on the 
face of the earth. 
Compare our wealth 
with that of other 




52,3Si 



31/JO 



23.S76 



2/.6J9 



Fig. 501. 
The five countries having the greatest length of railways, 1898. 



leading countries. In how many and in what respects have our prod- 
ucts and industries been shown to lead all nations of the world ? 

Dependence upon Other Nations. — Altogether the United States 
may be considered a ^J^^^^^ Kingdom 
wonderfully favored VWooTSeb Tons Wniteastates upthor. 
and independent ^||a | Land s Cerm'y.NorwAy 

nation, since it has 
such a wealth of raw 
products, and such 
an extensive devel- 
opment of manufac- 
turing. We, prob- 
ably, better than any other nation, could depend upon ourselves alone 
for all that we need, if occasion should arise. Yet so closely related 
are the nations of the world that, if war arises between two of them, 
our industries and markets are affected. This is due largely to the 




The five countries havinj 



Fig. 502. 
; the largest merchant marine, 1898. 



United States 


Gt. Britain 


France 


Germany 




64000miUion 

Hollar 

'\\ x ' , ,„, ,,> 




47000 


42000 


Russia 


32O00 


25000 













Fig. 503. 
The five wealthiest nations, 1888. 



fact that we produce far more than we need of certain commodities, 
as wheat, cotton, meat, and iron, for which a market must be found 
abroad. These we export. But it is also due to the fact that we 



COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 



461 




Fig. 504. 
Approximate distribution of coffee. 

are partly or wholly dependent upon foreign countries for certain 

other articles. These we import. 

For example, Figure 504 shows that coffee is not grown within 

our states, although it is daily consumed in almost every household. 

Notice, however, that it is produced 
in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Phil- 
ippine Islands (Fig. 504). To 
what climate and countries is it 
confined ? State the rank of the 



Brazil 




Vervextieta 'SS.SOO 



nn 



Tlie five leadina 



Fig. 505. 

coffee-producing sections, 
1899. 



CuatemaMS 3,S J& principal coffee-producing sections 
Ham s.H,o.fO ^^^^ compare their output (Fig. 
505). 

Note the heet sugar and cane 
sugar areas (Fig. 506). What 
difference do you detect in the situation of the countries producing 
these two kinds of sugar? Also note the rank of the leading- 
countries which manufacture cane sugar (Fig. 507). Our own 
states produce far less sugar each year than we consume. Of what 
importance, therefore, in this respect is our newly established relation 
to Cuba and. the Hawaiian and Philippine Islands ? 

We depend wholly on foreign nations for raw silk. Name the 
chief silk-producing countries (Fig 508). What have you learned 
about the production of silk? Our tea also comes almost entirely 
from abroad, mainly from eastern and southern Asia. From what 
region mainly ? And while much rice is produced in our Southern 
States (Fig. 509), a large amount has to be imported. From what 
sources must it be obtained ? We have, therefore, a very extensive 
trade in imports as well as in exports. 

Exports and Imports. — Our ten leading exports, named in order 



462 



C0MPABI80N OF COUNTRIES 



of value, together with the principal countries to which the goods 
are sent, are as follows : — 



Articles Value in 1900 

1. Cotton (mainly unmanufactured) $265,836,000 

2. Breadstuffs (wheat, corn, flour, 

etc.) 262,744,000 

3. Meat and dairy products 184,453,000 

4. Iron and steel, and manufactures of 121,914,000 

5. Mineral oils 75,612,000 

6. Copper (mainly manufactures of) 57,853,000 

7. Wood, and manufactures of 50,598,000 

8. Animals (mainly cattle) 43,685,000 

9. Tobacco 35,433,000 

10. Leather, and manufactures of 27,293,000 

Total value of exports $1,394,484,000 



Principal Countries to which they 
are sent 

Gt. Britain, Germany, France, 

Japan . 
Gt. Britain, Germany, Netherlands, 

Belgium. 
Gt. Britain, Germany, France, Bel- 
gium. 
Gt. Britain, Canada, Germany, 

Mexico. 
Gt. Britain, Germany, Netherlands, 

Belgium. 
Gt. Britain, Netherlands, France, 

Germany. 
Gt. Britain, Canada, Germany, 

W. Indies. 
Gt. Britain. 
Gt. Britain, Germany, Italy, 

France. 
Gt. Britain, Australasia, Canada. 



The ten leading imports, on the other hand, are as follows : — 



Articles Value in 1900 

1. Sugar and molasses $101,141,000 

2. Silk, and manufactures of 76,224,000 

3. Hides and skins 57,936,000 

4. Fibre, and manufactures of 57,933,000 

5. Chemicals, drugs, etc. 53,705,000 

6. Coffee 52,468,000 

7. Cotton (mainly manufactures of) 49,502,000 

8. Wool, and manufactures of 36,425,000 

9. Rubber and rubber goods 33,860,000 
10. Fruits and nuts 19,264,000 

$849,941,000 



Principal Countries from which they 
come 

E. Ind., Hawaiian Isds., Cuba, 

Germany (beet sugar) . 
Japan, France, China, Italy. 
E. Indies, S. America, Gt. Britain, 

France. 
Mexico, Philippines, E. Indies. 
Germany, E. Indies, Gt. Britain. 
Brazil, Cent. America, E. Indies, 

Mexico. 
Gt. Britain, Germany, Switzerland, 

France. 
Gt. Britain, Germany, France, S. 

America. 
Brazil, Gt. Britain. 
Italy, Cent. America, W. Indies. 



Total value of imports 

In Figure 510 trace the main steamship lines of the world by 
which these goods are carried. Compare the value and nature of 
our exports and imports. How is the result encouraging? 

More than one-third of all our foreign trade is with the British 
Isles, the ten leading countries ranking as follows : — 



The Ten Leading Countries with which we Trade 

Countries Value in 1900 Kinds of Goods 



f Exp. $533,820,000 

1. British Isles \ Imp. 159,582,000 

[ Total 693,402,000 
fExp. 187,348,000 

2. Germany { Imp. 97,-376,000 

( Total 284,723,000 



Provisions, breadstuffs, raw cotton. 

Cotton goods, raw wool, tin, jewelery, rubber 

goods. 
Raw cotton, breadstuffs, provisions. 
Beet sugar, chemicals and drugs, cotton goods, 

silk goods. 




Fig. 506. 
Distribution of sugar-cane and beet sugar. 



Cuba 



Java 



J~ 832,431 f 



United Sis M„^„^ii 



Phil. Is. 




Fig. 507. 
The five countries producing most cane sugar, 1898. 



Cfxlrxa. 



Japezn, ftal-^ 



France 

India 




ItxcLla^eGIAOO 



Fig. 508. 
The fiye leading raw silk-producing countries, 1899. 




Fig. 509. 
Approximate distribution of rice. 



COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 



463 





Countries 


Value in 1900 


3. 


France 


[Exp. 
\ Imp, 
i Total 


83,335,000 

73,012,000 

156,347,000 


4. 


Canada 


[ Total 


97,337,000 

.39,932,000 

137,269,000 


5. 


Netherlands 


fExp. 
\ Imp. 
[ Total 


89,387,000 

15,853,000 

105,240,000 


6. 


West Indies 


(Exp. 
\ Imp. 
[ Total 


48,561,000 

52,562,000 

101,123,000 


7. 


East Indies 


(-Exp. 
\ Imp. 
[ Total 


6,634,000 
73,243,000 
79,877,000 


8. 


Brazil 


( Total 


11,578,000 
58,073,000 
69,651,000 


9. 


Mexico 


fExp. 
\ Imp. 
( Total 


34,975,000 
28,646,000 
63,621,000 






fExp. 


29,087,000 


10. 


Japan 


Imp. 
Total 


32,749,000 
61,836,000 



Kinds of Goods 

Raw cotton, copper, mineral oil. 

Silk goods, hides, jewelry, cotton goods. 

Coal, hreadstuffs, cotton and manufactures of. 
Lumber, coal, hides. 

Breadstuffs, provisions, copper, mineral oil. 
Jewelry, tin. 

Provisions, breadstuffs, animals. 
Sugar, fruits, cocoa. 

Mineral oil, cotton goods. 
Sugar, hides, tin. 

Breadstuffs, mineral oil, provisions. 
Coffee, rubber, sugar. 

Coal, cotton goods, iron and steel manufactures. 
Sisal grass, coffee, lead, hides. 

Manufactured cotton, mineral oil, iron and steel 

manufactures. 
Silk, tea. 



Name some of the countries which probably have the same exports as 
the United States, and which are, therefore, likely to be active rivals to 
us in supplying foreign markets. 

Owing to our trade relations with the United Kingdom, what hard- 
ships would probably be brought upon the British if they entered upon a 
war with ns ? How might the Germans suffer if they were at war with 
us ? How might the French suffer ? On the other hand, what hardships 
would come to us in each case ? Are we more or less independent than 
these countries in case of war ? Why ? 



Reasons for the Rank of the United States. — The preceding fig- 
ures -and diagrams show that several European countries are the 
chief competitors with the United States in the worlcTs trade. Give 
examples. But so far as the future is concerned, several important 
facts are in our favor. In the first place, we are still in our youth 
as a people, while some of the leading nations of Europe have per- 
haps already reached the zenith of their power. In the second place, 
the territory of most of those countries is densely populated, as 
shown in Figure 482. Note the number of inhabitants per square 
mile in Belgium, Germany, and France. When we contrast with 
these figures our average of only twenty persons per square mile, 
the possibility of our future growth seems almost without limit. 
Immense tracts of land, which in Europe would be carefully tilled, 
are in our country not even cleared for pasture ; and in no large 



464 COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES 

section of the United States do we even approach the careful hand 
tillage of Belgium and some other European countries. 

Another point in our favor is the varied climate and physiog- 
raphy of our vast country, encouraging varied products. Almost 
all farm products can be easily raised and our wonderful mineral 
resources are apparently not equalled on a,ny continent. It will 
therefore be seen that our natural resources, which have made 
present development possible, promise equally well for the future. 

Our people are another element to be considered in reckoning 
past success and future promise. They have consisted, in large part, 
of those who had energy and ambition enough to migrate to a new 
land in the hope of bettering their condition. In their new home 
the possibilities have been so great that they have been encouraged 
to work and to improve themselves. As the environment of the 
desert has given rise to the nomad, and the ease of life in the tropi- 
cal forest to the degenerate savage, so the environment in the United 
States has given rise to a race noted for its energy and enterprise. 
This race has been possible, however, largely by reason of the fact 
that it comes from a mixture of peoples already gifted. That re- 
sources alone will not make an energetic people and a great nation 
is well illustrated in China, where nature favors, but racial charac- 
teristics and customs are opposed to development. 

Nor would the statement of reasons for the present position of 
the United States and her future prospects be complete if left here. 
There are two other elements of high importance ; namely, educa- 
tion and government. Where people are hampered by ignorance, 
petty restrictions, and heavy taxes, unnecessarily imposed upon them 
by their rulers, they have little opportunity for progress. It is those 
European countries in which there are the best opportunities for 
education and the greatest freedom, that have made the greatest 
progress. And no nation in the world pays more attention to edu- 
cation, or guarantees its people a more active part in their entire 
government, than the United States. 



APPENDIX 

TABLES OF AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 



Length of the Earth's Diameter at the 

Equator (miles), 
Length of Equator (miles), 



SIZE OF THE EARTH 

I The Earth's Surface (square miles), 196,940,000 

7,926 Total area of oceans (square miles), 141,486,000 

24,902 I 



Pacific 



Atlantic 



Irvdian 




Arctic 'iJQlOOO 



Relative areas of oceans. The Antarctic includes the great southern sea surrounding 

tlie south pole. 



CONTINENTS AND PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES, COLONIES, ETC. 



Area in Popula- 

Square Miles tion 

Dforth America, '00, 8,625,594 100,000,000 

Alaska, '00 577,390 63,441 

Bahama Islands, '91 5,450 47,565 

Bermuda Islands, '91 20 15,123 

British Honduras, '97 7,562 84,277 

Canada, '91 3,315,647 4,829,411 

Centi-al America, '97 175,696 3,271,426 

Costa Rica, '97 22,996 294,940 

Cuba, '99 41,655 1,572,797 

Guatemala, '97 49,000 1,535,632 

Greenland, '90 500,000 10,516 

Haiti (island), '97 28,250 1,880,000 

Honduras, '93 46,400 380,000 

Jamaica, '97 4,200 706,394 

Mexico, '95 767,005 12,636,887 

Newfoundland, '92 42,200 203,500 

Nicaragvia, '95 49,000 360,000 

St. CroLx, '90 84 19,783 

St. John, '90 21 984 

St. Thomas, '90 32 12,019 

Salvador, '94 8,300 803,534 



United States. See p. iii. 



Sonth America, '97 6,837,000 40.000,000 

Argentina, '95 1,778,195 3,954,911 

Bolivia, '98 567,430 2,019,549 



Area in Popula- 
Square Miles tion 

Brazil, '92 3,209,878 18,000,000 

Chile, '95 290,829 2,527,820 

Colombia, '81 518,988 3,878,600 

Ecuador, '89 120,000 1,271,861 

Falkland Isds., '97 6,500 2,050 

Galapagos Isds. , '89 2,400 200 

Guiana, British, '96 109,000 283,315 

Guiaaa, Dutch, '96 46,060 64,872 

Guiana, French, '91 46,850 22,710 

Juan Fernandez 36 

Paraguay, '97 98,000 730,000 

Peru, '97 449,000 3,000,000 

South Georgia Isds 1,000 uninhabited 

Tobago, '97 114 20,785 

Trinidad Isd., 97 1,754 254,518 

Uruguay, '98 72,110 840,725 

Venezuela, '91 593,943 2,323,527 

Europe, '97 3,850,000 374,000,000 

Andorra, '97 175 6,000 

Austria, '90 115,903 23,895,413 

Austria-Hungary, '91 240,942 41,359,204 

Balearic Isles, '87 1,860 312,593 

Belgium, '97 11,378 6,586,593 

British Empire, '98 11,370,000 383,900,000 

British Isles, '96 120,979 88,104,975 

Bulgaria, '90 38,080 3,310,713 

Corsica, '96 8,377 290,108 

Crete, '85 3,826 294,190 



11 



APPENDIX 



Area in Popula- 

Square Miles tion 

Denmark, '90 15.2S9 2,185,335 

England, '91 50,867 27,483,490 

Faroe Isds., '90 514 12,955 

France, '96 204,092 38,517,975 

German Empire, '00 .., 208,880 56,345,014 

Great Britain, '91. ./. 88,094 83,028,172 

Greece, '96 25,014 2,433,806 

Hebrides Isds., '97 3,000 100,000 

Hungary, '90 125,039 17,463,791 

Iceland, '97 39,756 70,927 

Ireland, '91 32,583 4,704,750 

Italy, '98 110,646 81,667,946 

Liechtenstein, '91 65 9,434 

Luxemburg, '95 998 217,583 

Malta, '97 - 95 177,745 

Monaco, '90 8 13,804 

Montenegro, '97 3,630 228,000 

Netherlands, '97 12,648 5,004,204 

Norway, '91 124,445 2,000,917 

Orkney Isds., '91 376 80,453 

Portugal, '90 36,038 5,049,729 

Prussia, '95 1.34,603 31,855,123 

Eoumania, '93 48,807 5,800,000 

Russia, '97 2,095,616 106,191,795 

Russian Empire, '96 8,660,282 129,000,000 

San Marino, '96 32 8,500 

Sardinia, '98 9,294 766,094 

Scotland, '91 29,785 4,025,647 

Servia, '95 19,050 2,312,484 

Shetland Isds., '91 551 28,711 

Sicily, '98 9,936 3,603,310 

Spain '87 197,670 17,565,682 

Sweden, '97 172,876 5,009,632 

Switzerland, '97 15,976 3,082,989 

Turkey, '98 62,744 5,711,000 

Turkish Empire, '97 1,576,677 38,790,786 

Wales, '91 7,442 1,519,085 

Jlsia, with Islands, '97 17,255,890 831,000,000 

Aden, '91 80 44,079 

Afghanistan, '97 215,400 4,000,000 

Arabia, '97 845,000 6,000,000 

Baluchistan, '97 145,417 500,000 

Bhutan, '97 16,800 200,000 

Bokhara, '97 92,000 2,500,000 

Burma, '91 171,430 7,605,560 

Cfeylon, '91 25,333 3,009,461 

China (proper), '97 1,386,841 886,000,000 

Chinese Empire, '97 4,218,401 402,680,000 

Chinese Turkestan, '97 431,800 580,000 

Cyprus '91 . . -. 3,584 209,286 

Formosa, '96 18,541 1,996,989 

French India, '97 197 286,913 

French Indo-China, '97 294,782 16,000,000 

India '91 1,559,603 287,123,350 

Japan, '96 161,196 43,705,253 

Khiva '97 22,320 750,000 

Korea '97 82,000 10,500,000 

Manchuria, '97 362,810 7,500,000 

Mongolia, '97 1,288,000 2,000,000 

Nepal, '97 54,000 2-5,000,000 

Oman, '97 82,000 1,500,000 

Palestine, '97 10,000 400,000 

Persia, '97 628,000 9,000,000 

Portuguese Indies, '87 1,890 494,8.36 

Russia in Asia, '97 6,564,778 22,697,469 



Area in Popula- 
Square Miles tion 

Russian Turkestan, '97 257,184 8,898,106 

Siam, '96 300,000 5,000,000 

Siberia, '97 4,833,496 5,727,000 

Straits Settlements. '91 1,255 512,342 

Sungaria, '96 147,950 600,000 

Tibet, '97 651,500 6,000,000 

Turkey in Asia, '98 650,097 16,823,500 

Africa, '97 11,508,793 170,000,000 

Abyssinia, "97 462,000 5,000,000 

Algeria (Fr.), '96 184,474 4,480,000 

Ashanti (Br.), '91 15,000 1,473,882 

British Central and South Af- 
rica, '97 500,000 3,000,000 

British East Africa 1,000,000 unknown 

British Somahland, '91 68,000 240,000 

Canary Isds. (Sp.), '87 2,808 291,625 

Cape Colony (Br.), '91 276,925 1,766,040 

Cape Verde Isds., '90 1,480 114,130 

Egypt, '97 400,000 9,734,405 

Egyptian Sudan, '82 950,000 10,000,000 

Eritrea (Italy), '93 88,500 450,000 

French Sudan, '97 354,000 2,860,000 

French Kongo, '97 496,920 8,950,000 

French Somahland, '97 8,640 30,000 

French Territory, '97 3,288,034 30,358,890 

Gambia (Br.), '97 2,700 50,000 

German East Africa, '97 884,000 4,000,000 

German Southwest Africa, '97 . .322,450 202,628 

German Territory, '98 930,760 10,200,000 

Gold Coast (Br.), '97 46,600 1,473,882 

Italian Somaliland, '93 100,000 400,000 

Kamerun (Ger.), '98 .191,130 8,500,000 

Kongo State, '98 900,000 80,000,000 

Liberia, '97 14,360 1,068,000 

Madagascar (Fr.), '97 227,750 3,500,000 

Madeira Isds., '90 505 184,000 

Mauritius (Br.), '91 705 871,655 

Morocco, '89 219,000 5,000,000 

Natal (Br.), '98 35,000 829,005 

Niger Territories (Br.), '99 .. ..500,000 20-35,000,000 

Orange River Colony, '90 48,326 207,503 

Portuguese East Africa,'97 301,000 3,120,000 

Portuguese Guinea, '97 4,440 820,000 

Portuguese West Africa,'97 490,000 5,000,000 

Reunion Island (Fr.), '97 970 171,720 

St. Helena (Br.), '91 47 4,116 

Sierra Leone (Br.), '97 80,000 250,000 

Spanish Africa, '98 243,877 136,000 

Togo, '98 33,000 2,500,000 

Transvaal Colony, '98 119,189 1,094,156 

Tripoli (Turk.), '97 898,900 1,.300,000 

Tunis (Fr.), '97 50,840 1,500,000 

Zanzibar (Br.), '97 640 150,000 

Australia, '97 2,946,691 4,000,000 

New South Wales, '98 310,700 1,335,800 

Northern Territory, '97 — 4,820 

Queensland, '97 668,497 484,700 

South Austraha, '97 908,690 358,224 

Tasmania, '91 26,385 146,667 

Victoria, '98 87,884 1,169,4-34 

Western Australia, '97 975,920 161,924 



AEEA, POPULATION, ETC. 



Ill 



Area in Popula- 

Square MUes tion 

East Indies and Larger Islands 
of Pacific. 

Borneo, '97 243,843 1,575,000 

Celebes, '97 71,470 1,997,860 

Fiji Isds., '97 8,045 121,798 

Hawaiian Isds., '00 6,640 154,001 

Java, '97 50,554 25,697,701 



Area in Popula- 

Square Miles tion 

Molucca Isds., '97 43,864 399,208 

New Caledonia, '97 7,630 51,000 

New Guinea, '97 312,329 800,000 

New Zealand, '96 104,471 743,214 

Philippine Isds., '97 114,326 7,000,000 

Samoa Isds., '97 1,701 34.000 

Solomon Isds 16,300 175^000 

Sumatra, '97 161,612 3,209,037 



Total Area ot Continents 50,423,968 

Total Population 1,519,000,000 



STATES AND TEEEITOEIES OF THE UNITED STATES 



Area in Popula- 

Square Miles tion, 1900 

Alabama 52,250 1,828,697 

Alaska 577,390 63,441 

Arizona 113,020 122,931 

Arkansas 53,850 1,311,564 

California 158,360 1,485,053 

Colorado 103,925 539,700 

Connecticut. 4,990 908,355 

Delaware 2,050 184,735 

District of Columbia 70 278,718 

Florida 58,680 528,542 

Georgia 59,475 2,216,331 

Guam, '87 180 8,561 

Hawaiian Isds 6,640 154,001 

Idaho 84,800 161,772 

Illinois 56,650 4,821,550 

Indiana 86,3.50 2,516,462 

Indian Territory 31,400 391,960 

Iowa 56,025 2,231,858 

Kansas 82,080 1,470,495 

Kentucky 40,400 2,147,174 

Louisiana 48,720 1,381,625 

Maine 33,040 694,466 

Maryland 12,210 1,190,050 

Massachusetts 8,315 2, 805,346 

Michigan 58,915 2,420,982 

Minnesota 83,365 1,751,894 

Mississippi 46,810 1,551,270 

Missouri 69,415 8,106,665 

Montana 146,080 243,329 

Nebraska 77.510 1,068,589 



Area in Popula- 

Square Miles tion, 1900 

Nevada 110,700 42,335 

New Hampshire 9,305 411,588 

New Jersey 7,815 1,883,669 

New Mexico 122,580 195,810 

New York 49,170 7,268,012 

North Carolina .52,250 1,893,810 

North Dakota 70,795 819,146 

Ohio 41,060 4,157,545 

Oklahoma 39,030 398,245 

Oregon 96,030 413,536 

Pennsylvania 45,215 6,302,115 

Philippine Isds., '97 114,326 7,000,000 

Porto Rico, '99 3,550 953,243 

Rhode Island .. . 1,250 428,556 

South Carohna 30,570 1,340,816 

South Dakota 77,650 401,570 

Tennessee 42,050 2,020,616 

Texas 265,780 3,048,710 

Tutuila 55 3,800 

Utah 84,970 276,749 

Vermont 9.565 343,641 

Virginia 42.450 1,854,184 

Washington 69,180 518,103 

West Virginia 24,780 958,800 

Wisconsin 56,040 2,069,042 

Wyoming ... .97,890 92,531 

United States, total 3.728,000 84,266,603 

United States (without Alaska, Philip- 
pine Isds., etc.) 3,025,600 76,087,350 



TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES IN THE WORLD 



Population 

1. London, England, '98 4,504,766 

Greater London, '98 6,408,321 

.3. New York, U.S., '00 3,437,202 

3. Paris, France, '96 2,536,834 

4. Canton, China, '97 2,500,000 

5. Berlin, Germany, '00 .1,884,345 

-.6. Chicago, U.S., '00 1,698,575 

7. Vienna, Austria-Hungary, '90 1,364,548 

8. Tokio, Japan, '96 1,299,941 

■--9. Philadelphia, U.S., '00 1,293,697 

10. St. Petersburg, Russia, '97 1,267,023 

11. Moscow, Russia, '97 988,614 

12. Tientsin, China, '97 950,000 



Population 

13. Peking, China, '98 900,000 

14. Constantinople, Turkey, '85 873,565 

15. Calcutta, India, '91 861,764 

16. Bombay. India, '91 821,764 

17. Hankau, China, '97 800,000 

18. Buenos Aires, Argentina, '98 753,000 

19. Glasgow, Scotland, '98 724,349 

20. Hamburg, Germany, '00 704,069 

21. Hangchau, China. '97 700,000 

22. Fuchau, China, '97 650,000 

23. Warsaw, Russi*, '97 .638,209 

24. Liverpool, England, '98 633,645 

.25. St. Louis, U.S., '00 575,288 



IV 



APPENDIX 



TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1900 



Population 

1. New Tork, N.T 8,437,202 

2. Chicago, 111 1,698,575 

3. Philadelphia, Pa 1,293,697 

4. St. Louis, Mo 575,238 

5. Boston, Mass 560,892 

6. Baltimore, Md ' 508,957 

7. Cleveland, Ohio 381,768 

8. Buffalo, N.T 352,387 

9. San Francisco, Cal 342,782 

10. Cincinnati, Ohio 325,902 

11. Pittsburg, Pa 321,616 

12. New Orleans, La 287,104 

13. Detroit, Mich 285,704 



Population 

14. Milwaukee, Wis 285,315 

15. Washington, D.C 278,718 

16. Newark, N.J 246,070 

17. Jersey City, N.J 206,433 

IS. Louisville, Ky 204,731 

19. Minneapolis, Minn 202,718 

20. Providence, K.I 175,597 

21. Indianapolis, Ind 169,164 

22. Kansas City, Mo 163,752 

23. St. Paul, Minn 163,065 

24. Rochester, N.T 162,608 

25. Denver, Colo 133,859 



GROWTH OF THE FIFTEEN LARGEST CITIES OF THE COUNTRY 

City 1800 

1. New Tork, N.T 60,489 (1) 

2. Chicago. Ill 

3. Philadelphia, Pa 41,220 (2) 

4. St. Louis, Mo 10,049 (1S20) 

5. Boston, Mass 24,937 (4) 

6. Baltimore, Md 26,514 (3) 

7. Cleveland, Ohio 606 (1820) 

8. Buffalo, N.T 2,095 (1820) 

9. San Francisco, Cal 

10. Cincinnati, Ohio 2,540 (1810) 

11. Pittsburg, Pa 1,565 

12. New Orleans, La 17,242 (1810) 

13. Detroit, Mich 1,422 (1820) 

14. Milwaukee, Wis 

15. Washington, D.C 3,210 



1830 


1890 


1900 


197,112 (1) 


1,515,301 (1) 


3,487,202 


4,470 (1840) 


1,099,850 (2) 


1,698,575 


80,462 (3) 


1,046,964 (3) 


1,293,697 


14,125 


451,770 (4) 


575,238 


61,392 (4) 


448,477 (5) 


560,892 


80,620 (2) 


434,439 (6) 


508,957 


1,076 


261,353 (9) 


381,768 


8,668 


255,664 (10) 


352,887 




298,997 (7) 


342,782 


24,831 (7) 


296,908 (8) 


325,902 


12,568 


238,617 (12) 


321,616 


29,737 (6) 


242,039 (11) 


287,104 


2,222 


205,876 (14) 


285,704 


1,172 (1840) 


204,468 (15) 


285,815 


18,826 


280,392 (13) 


278,718 



CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES WITH 25,000 OR MORE INHABITANTS IN 1900; AND 
A FEW OTHERS, MOSTLY MENTIONED IN THE BOOK 

(Cuban cities listed here) 



Population 

Akron, Ohio 42,728 

Albany, N. Y 94,151 

Albuquerque, N.M 6,238 

Allegheny, Pa 129,896 

Allentown, Pa 35,416 

Altoona, Pa. 38,973 

Annapolis, Md 8,402 

Ann Arbor, Mich 14,509 

Ashland, Wis 13,074 

Ashville, N.C 14,694 

Astoria, Ore 8,381 

Atchison, Kan 15,722 

Atlanta, Ga 89,872 

Atlantic City, N.J 27,838 

Auburn, N. Y 30,345 

Auburn, Me 12,951 

Augusta, Ga .39,441 

Auifusta, Me 11,683 

Austin, Tex 22.258 

Baltimore, Md 508,957 

Bangor, Me 21,850 

Bar Harbor, Me., '90 2.000 

Bath, Me 10,477 

Baton Rogue, La 11,269 

Bay City, Mich 27,628 

Bavonne, N.J 32,722* 

Berkeley, Cal 18,214 

Biddeford, Me 16,145 



Population 

Billings, Mont 8,221 

Binghamton, N.T 89,647 

Birmingham, Ala 38,415 

Bismarck, N.D 3,819 

Boise, Idaho 5,957 

Boston, Mass 560,892 

Bradford, Pa 15,029 

Bridgeport, Conn 70,996 

Brockton, Mass 40,063 

Brunswick, Ga 9,081 

Buffalo, N.T 352,387 

Burlington, Vt 18,640 

Butte, Mont 30,470 

Cambridge, Mass 91,886 

Camden, N.J 75,935 

Canton, Ohio 30,667 

Carson City, Nev 2,100 

Cedar Rapids; Iowa 25,656 

Charleston, S.C 55,807 

Charleston, W. Va 11,099 

Charlotte, N.C 18,091 

Chattanooga, Tenn 32,490 

Chelsea, Mass 34,072 

Chester, Pa 33,988 

Cheyenne, Wyo 14,087 

Chicago, 111 1,698,575 

Cincinnati, Ohio 325,902 

Cleveland, Ohio 381,768 



AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 



Population 

Colorado Springs, Colo 21,085 

Columbia, S.C 21,108 

Columbus, Ga 17,614 

Columbus, Ohio 125,560 

Concord, N.H 19,632 

Council BluflFs, Iowa 25,802 

Covington, Ky • 42,938 

Cripple Creek, Colo 10,147 

Dallas. Tex 42,638 

Danville, Va 16,520 

Davenport, Iowa 35,254 

Davton, Ohio 85,333 

Denver, Colo 133,859 

Des Moines, Iowa 62,139 

Detroit, Mich 285,704 

Dover, Del : 3,329 

Dover, N.H 13,207 

Dubuque, Iowa 36,297 

Duluth, Minn 52,969 

Durham, N.C 6,679 

Easton, Pa 25,238 

East St. Louis, 111 29,655 

Elizabeth. N.J 52,130 

Elmira. N. Y 35, 672 

El Paso, Tex 15,906 

Erie, Pa. 52,733 

Evansville, Ind 59,007 

Fall Ptiver, Mass 104,863 

Findlay, Ohio 17,613 

Fitchburg, Mass 31,531 

Fort Wavne, Ind 45,115 

Fort Worth. Tex 26,688 

Frankfort, Ky 9,487 

Galveston, Tex 37,789 

Gloucester, Mass .26,121 

Grand Eapids, Mich 87,565 

Greelev, Colo 3,023 

Greenville, S.C 11,860 

Guthrie, Ok ' 10,006 

Harrisburg, Pa 50,167 

Hartford, Conn 79,850 

Havana, Cuba. '99 235,981 

Haverhill, Mass 37,175 

Helena, Mont 10,770 

Hilo, Hawaiian Islands 19,785 

Hoboken, N.J 59,364 

Holyoke, Mass 45,712 

Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands 39,306 

Hot Springs, Ark 9,973 

Houston, Tex 44,633 

Indianapolis, Ind 169,164 

Ishpeming, Mich 13,255 

Ithaca, N. Y 13,186 

Jackson, Mich 25,180 

Jackson, Miss 7,816 

Jacksonville, Fla 28,429 

Jamestown, N.Y 22,892 

Jefferson City, Mo 9,664 

Jersey City, N.J r. 206,4-33 

Johnstown, Pa 85,936 

Joliet, 111 29,358 

Joplin, Mo 26,028 

Juneau, Alaska 1,864 

Kansas Citv, Kan 51,418 

Kansas City, Mo 163,752 

Key West, Fla.' 17,114 

Knoxville, Tenn 82,637 

LaCrosse, Wis 28,895 

Lancaster, Pa 41 ,459 

Lansing, Mich 16,485 



Population 

Laramie, Wyo. 8,207 

Lawrence, Mass 62,559 

Leadville, Colo 12,455 

Lewiston, Me 28,761 

Lexington, K^y 26,369 

Lincoln, Neb 40,169 

Little Eock, Ark 38,307 

Lockport. N.Y 16,581 

Los Angeles, Cal Iit2,479 

Louisville, Ky 204,731 

Lowell, Mass 94,969 

Lynchburg, Va 18,891 

Lynn, Mass 68,513 

Macon, Ga 23,272 

Madison, Wis 19,164 

Maiden, Mass 33,664 

Mancnester. N.H 56,987 

Manila, Philippines, '87 . .' 154,062 

Marquette, Mich 10,058 

Matanzas, Cuba, '99 45,282 

McKeesport, Pa 34,227 

Memphis, Tenn 102,320 

Meriden, Conn 24,296 

Milwaukee, Wis 285,815 

Minneapolis, Minn 202,718 

Mobile, Ala 38,469 

Montgomery, Ala 30,346 

Montpeher, Vt 6,266 

Nashua, N.H 28,898 

Nashville, Tenn 80,865 

Natchez, Miss 12,210 

Newark, N.J 246,070 

New Bedford, Mass 62,442 

New Britain, Conn 25,998 

Newcastle, Pa 28,339 

New Haven, Conn 108,027 

New Orleans, La 287,104 

Newport, Ky 28,301 

Newport, E.I 22,084 

Newport News, Va 19,635 

Newton, Mass 83,587 

New York, N.Y 8,487,202 

Niagara Falls, N.Y 19,457 

Nome City, Alaska 12,486 

Norfolk, Va 46,624 

Norristown, Pa 22,265 

Oakland, Cal 66,960 

Ogden, Utah 16,818 

Oil City, Pa 13,264 

Oklahoma, Ok 10,037 

Clean, N.Y 9,462 

Olympia, Wash 4,082 

Omaha, Neb 102,555 

Oshkosh, Wis 28,284 

Oswego, N.Y 22,199 

Passaic, N.J 27,777 

Paterson, N.J 105,171 

Pawtucket, E.I 89,281 

Pensacola, Fla 17,747 

Peoria, 111. 56,100 

Philiidelphia, Pa 1,298,697 

Phcenix, Ariz 5,544 

Pierre, S.D 2,806 

Pittsburg, Pa 821,616 

Pittsfleld, Mass 21,766 

Plj'mouth, Mass 9,662 

Ponce, Porto Eico, '99 27,952 

Portland, Me. 50,145 

Portland, Ore 90,426 

Portsmouth, N.H 10,637 



VI 



APPENDIX 



Population 

Poughkeepsie, N.Y 24,029 

Providence, R.I 175,59T 

Provincetown, Mass, '95 4,555 

Pueblo, Colo 28,157 

Quinoy, 111 36,252 

Quincy, Mass 23,899 

Eacine, Wis 29,102 

Ealeigh, N.C 13,6i3 

Beading, Pa 78,961 

Eichmond, Va 85,050 

Eoanoke, Va 21,445 

Eochester, N.Y 162,608 

Eockford, lU 31,051 

Eome, Ga 7,291 

Eutland, Vt 11,499 

Saoramento, Cal 29,282 

Saginaw, Mich 42,345 

St. Augustine, Fla 4,272 

St. Joseph, Mo 102,979 

St. Louis, Mo 575,238 

St. Paul, Minn 163,065 

Salem, Mass 35,956 

Salem, Ore 4,258 

Salt Lake City, Utah 53,531 

San Antonio, Tex 58,321 

San Diego, Cal 17,700 

San Francisco, Cal 342,782 

San Jos^, Cal '. 21,500 

San Juan, Porto Eico, '99 32,048 

Santa Fe, N.M 5,603 

Santiago, Cuba, '99 45,478 

Sault Ste. Marie, Mich 10,538 

Savannah, Ga 54,244 

Schenectady, N.T 31,682 

Scranton, Pa 102,026 

Seattle, Wash 80,671 

Shreveport, La 16,013 

Sioux City, Iowa 33,111 

Sioux Falls, S.D 10,266 



Population 

Sitka, Alaska 1,396 

Somerville, Mass 61,643 

South Bend, Ind 35,999 

South Omaha, Neb 26,001 

Spokane, Wash 36,848 

Springfield, 111 34,159 

Springfield, Mass 62,059 

Springfield, Ohio 38,253 

Stockton, Cal 17,506 

Superior, Wis 81,091 

Syracuse, N.Y 108,374 

Tacoma, Wash 37,714 

Tallahassee, Fla 2,981 

Tampa, Fla 37,714 

Taunton, Mass 31 ,036 

Terre Haute, Ind 36,673 

Toledo, Ohio 131,822 

Topeka, Kan 33,608 

Trenton, N.J 73,307 

Troy, N.Y 60,651 

Tucson, Ariz 7,531 

Utica, N.Y 56,383 

Vicksburg, Miss 14,834 

Virginia City, Nev 2,695 

Waltham, Mass 23,481 

Washington, D.C 278,718 

Waterbury, Conn 45,859 

Watertown, N.Y 21,696 

Wheeling, W. Va 38,878 

Wichita, Kan 24,671 

Wilkes Barre, Pa 51,721 

Williamsport, Pa 28,757 

Wilmington, Del 76,508 

Winona, Minn 19,714 

Woonsocket, E.I 28,204 

Worcester, Mass 118,421 

Yonkers, N.Y 47,931 

York, Pa 33,708 

Youngstown, Ohio 44,885 



FOEEIGN CITIES MENTIONED IN , THE TEXT 



Population 

Aachen, Germany, '95 110,551 

Abbeokuta, Niger Terr., '97 150,000 

Aberdeen, Scotland, '98 140,381 

Acapulco, Mexico, '97 5,000 

Adelaide, Australia, '97 146,125 

Aden, Aden, '91 41,910 

Adiz Abeba, Abyssinia, '97 3,000 

Alexandria, Egypt, '97 819,766 

Algiers, Algeria, '91 82,585 

Amsterdam, Netherlands, '97 503,285 

Antwerp, Belgium, '97 271,284 

Archangel, Eussia, '97 17,802 

Arequipa, Peru, '97 30,000 

Asuncion, Paraguay, '95 45,000 

Athens, Greece, '96 111,486 

Auckland, New Zealand, '96 31,424 

Bagdad, Turkev in Asia, '85 145,000 

Bahia, Brazil, '90 174,412 

Baku, Eussia, '97 112,253 

Ballarat, Australia, '97 46,137 

Bangkok, Siam, '96 250,000 

Barcelona, Spain, '87 272,481 

Barmen, Germany, '95 126,992 

Basel, Switzerland, '97 89,687 

Batavia, Java, '91 104,590 



Population 

Belfast, Ireland, '91 255,950 

Belgrade, Servia, '95 59,115 

Benares, India, '91 219,467 

Bendigo, Australia, '97 43,075 

Berbera, Br. Somaliland, '97 30,000 

Bergen, Norway, '91 58,684 

Berlin, Germany, '00 1,884,345 

Berne, Switzerland, '97 49,080 

Bethany, Holy Land, '90 1,105 

Bethlehem, Holy Land, '97 5,000 

Bilbao, Spain, '87 50,772 

Birmingham, England, '98 510,343 

Bloemfontein, South Africa, '90 3,379 

Bogota. Colombia, '86 120,000 

Bologna, Italy, '97 153,206 

Bombay, India, '91 821,764 

Bordeaux, France, '96 256,906 

Bradford, England, '98 283,737 

Bremen, Germany, '95 141,894 

Breslau, Germany, '00 422,415 

Brindisi, Italy, '97 14,000 

Brisbane, Australia, '97 25,889 

Bristol, England, '98 316,900 

Brussels, Belgium, '97.. 551,011 

Bucharest, Eoumania, '94 232,000 



AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 



Vll 



Population 

Budapest, Austria-Hungary, '90 505,763 

Buenos Aires, Argentina, '98 753,000 

Cadiz, Spain, '87 62,531 

Cairo, Egypt, '97 570,062 

Calcutta, India, '91 861,764 

Calgary, Canada, '91 3,876 

Callao, Peru, '90 35,492 

Cambridge, England, '91 36,983 

Canton, China, '97 2,500,000 

Cape Town, Cape Colony, '91 51,251 

Caracas, Venezuela, '91 72,429 

Cardiff, Wales, '98 177,770 

Cartagena, Colombia, '86 20,000 

Cartagena, Spain, '87 84,171 

Catania, Italy, '97 129,651 

Cayenne, French Guiana, '97 12,351 

Cettinge. Montenegro, '97 2,920 

Charlottetowu, Canada, '91 11,374 

Chemnitz, Germany, '00 200,584 

Chengtu, China, '96 250,000 

Christchurch, New Zealand, '96 16,964 

Christiania, Norway, '98 200,000 

Ciudad Bolivar, Venezuela, '91 11,686 

Cologne, Germany, '00 376,085 

Colon, Colombia, '97 3,000 

Constantinople, Turkey, '85 873,565 

Copenhagen, Denmark, '90 312,859 

Cordoba, Argentina. '95 47,609 

Cordoba, Spain, '87 55,614 

Cork, Ireland, '91 75,845 

Cuzco, Peru, '89 22,000 

Damascus. Turkey in Asia, '85 150,000 

Danzig, Germany,l!'95 125,605 

Dawson, Canada, '97 10,000 

Delhi, India, '91 192,579 

Dover, England, '91 33,418 

Dresden, Germany, '95 336,440 

Dublin, Ireland, '91 245,001 

Dundee, Scotland, '98 164,575 

Dunedin, New Zealand, '96 22,815 

Durban, Natal, '98 39,245 

Edinburgh. Scotland, '98 295,628 

Elberfeld, Germany, '95 139,337 

Essen, Germany, '95 96,128 

Fachan, China, '98 400,000 

Fiume, Austria-Hungary, '90 29,494 

Fez, Morocco, '89 ' 140,000 

Florence, Italy, '97 209,540 

Frankfort, Germany, '00 287,813 

Fredericton, Canada, '91 6,502 

Freetown, Sierre Leone, '91 30,033 

Fuchau, China, '97 650,000 

Geneva, Switzerland, '97 86,535 

Genoa, Italy, '97 228,862 

Georgetown, British Guiana, '91 58,176 

Ghent, Belgium, '97 161,125 

Gibraltar, Spanish Pen., '97 26,203 

Glasgow, Scotland, '98 724,349 

Gothenburg, Sweden, '97 120,552 

Grenada, Spain, '87 73,006 

Grimsby, England, '91 51,934 

Guatemala, Guatemala, '93 : 72,102 

Guayaquil, Ecuador, '98 50,000 

Hague, Netherlands, '97 196,325 

Halifax, Canada, '91 38,556 

Halle, Germany, '00 156,503 

Hamburg, Germany, '00 704,069 

Hamilton, Bermuda, '97 1,296 

Hamilton, Canada, '91 48,980 

Hammerfest, Norway, '91 2,239 



Population 

Hangchau, China, '97 700,000 

Hankau, China, '97 800,000 

Hanover, Germany, '95 209,535 

Havre, France, '96 119,470 

Hebron, Holy Land, '97 10,000 

Helsingfors, Russia, '96 77,484 

Hobart, Tasmania, '91 24,905 

Hongkong, China, '99 259,312 

Hue, French Ind. China, '97 30,000 

Hull, England, '98 229,887 

Hyderabad, India, '91 415,039 

Iquique, Chile, '95 33,031 

Irkutsk, Siberia, '96 51,434 

Jerusalem, Holy Land, '85 41,000 

Johannesburg, Transvaal, '96 102,078 

Joppa, Holy Land, '97 23,000 

Kabul, Afghanistan, '97 70,000 

Khartum, Egyptian Soudan, '98 25,000 

Khelat, Baluchistan, '97 14,000 

Kiev, Russia, '97 247,432 

Kimberley, Cape Colony, '91 28,718 

Kingston, Canada, '91 19,264 

Kingston, Jamaica, '91 46,542 

Kioto, Japan, '96 341,101 

Konigsburg, Germany, '95 172,758 

Krefeld, Germany, '95 107,245 

Kumassi, Ashanti, '97 18,000 

La Guaira, Venezuela, '97 8,000 

La Paz, Bolivia, '98 65,000 

La Plata, Argentina, '95 45,410 

Lassa, Tibet, '97 25,000 

Leeds, England, '98 416,618 

Leghorn, Italy, '97 104,536 

Leicester, England, '98 208,662 

Leipzig, Germany,f'00 455,120 

Leith, Scotland, '98 76,277 

Libreville, French Congo, '97 8,000 

Liege, Belgium, '97 167,305 

Lille, France, '96 216,276 

Lima, Peru, '91 103,956 

Limoges, France, '96 77,703 

Lisbon, Portugal, '91 801,206 

Liverpool, England, '98 688,645 

Loanda, Port. W. Africa, '97 14,000 

Lodz, Russia, '97 315,209 

London, Canada, '91 31,977 

London, England, '91 4,504.766 

London, Greater, '98 6,408,321 

Lourengo Marquez, Port. E. Af., '97 8,000 

Lucerne, Switzerland, '99 23,700 

Lucknow, India, '91 273,028 

Lyon, France, '96 466,028 

Madras, India, '91 452,518 

Madrid, Spain, '87 470,283 

Magdeburg. Germany, '95 214,424 

Malaga, Spain, '87 134,016 

Manaos, Brazil, '93 20,000 

Manchester, England, '98 539,079 

Mandalay, Burma, '91 188,815 

Marseille, France, '96 442,289 

Maskat, Oman, '97 40,000 

Mecca, Turkey, '85 60,000 

Melbourne, Australia, '97 458,610 

Messina, Italy, '97 152,648 

Metz, Germany, '95 59,794 

Mexico City, Mexico, '95 844,377 

Milan, Italy, '97 470,558 

Mocha, Turkey in Asia, '97 5,000 

Mombasa, Br. E. Africa, '97 30,000 

Monrovia, Liberia, '97 5,000 

Montevideo, Uruguay, '97 249,251 



Vlll 



APPENDIX 



Population 

MoBtreal, Canada, '91 216,650 

Morocco, Morocco, '97 50,000 

Moscow, Eussia, '97 988,614 

Munich, Germany, '00 498,503 

Nagoya, Japan, '96 242,085 

Naples, Italy, '97 536,078 

Nassau, Bahama, '91 11,000 

Nazareth, Holy Land, '97 7,500 

Newcastle, England, '98 223,021 

Nice, France, '96 98,766 

Nijni Novgorod, Eussia, '97 95,124 

Nottingham, England, '99 239,884 

Nuremberg, Germany, '00 260,743 

Odessa, Eussia, '97 405,041 

Oporto, Portugal, '90 138,860 

Osaka, Japan. '96 503,690 

Ottawa, Canada, '91 44,154 

Oxford, England, '91 45,742 

Palermo, Italy, '97 287,972 

Panama, Colombia, '86 30,000 

Para, Brazil, '92 65,000 

Paramaribo, Dutch Guiana, '96 30,000 

Paris, France, '96 2,536,834 

Peking, China, '98 900,000 

Pernambuco, Brazil, '90 111,556 

Perth, "West Australia, '97 87,929 

Pietermaritzburg, Natal, '98 24,595 

Piraeus, Greece, '96 42,169 

Pisa, Italy, '97 65,516 

Port Arthur, Canada, '91 2,698 

Port Arthur, Eussia in Asia 

Port au Prince, Haiti, '97 60,000 

Port Said, Egypt, '97 42,095 

Portsmouth, England, '98 186,618 

Posen, Germany, "00 116,151 

Potsdam, Germany, '95 58,455 

Prague, Austria-Hungary. '90 184,109 

Pretoria, Transvaal, '96. ."•' 10,000 

Puebla, Mexico, '95 91,917 

Quebec, Canada, '91 68,090 

Queenstown, Ireland, '91 9,082 

Quito, Ecuador, '97 80,000 

Eangoon, Burma, '91 180,324 

Eeims, France, '96 107,963 

Eiga, Eussia, '97 282,943 

Eio de Janeiro, BrazO, '90 522,651 

Eome, Italy, '97 487,066 

Eosarlo, Argentina, '95 94,025 

Eotterdam, Netherlands, '97 298,438 

Eoubaix, France, '96 124,661 

Eouen, France, '96 113,219 

St. Etienne, France, '96 186,030 

St. John, Canada, '91 89,179 

St. John's. Newfoundland, '92 81,142 

St. Petersburg, Eussia, '97 1,267,023 

Samarkand, Russian Turkestan, '97 64,900 

San Luis Potosi, Mexico, '95 69,676 

San Salvador, Salvador, '94 25,000 

Santiago, Chile, '97 802,131 

Santo Domingo, Santo Domingo, '92 14,150 



Population 

Santos, Brazil, '97 15,000 

Sao Paulo, Brazil, '92 100,000 

Seoul, Korea, '97 250,000 

Seville, Spain. '87 148,182 

Sevres, France, '91 6,902 

Shanghai, China, '97 457,000 

Sheffield, England, '98 356,478 

Siangtan, China, '98 1,000,000 

Singiinfu, China, '98 600,000 

Singapore, Straits Settlements, '91 160,000 

Smyrna, Turkev, '85 200,000 

Sofia, Bulgaria, '98 46,593 

Southampton, England, '91 65,325 

Stettin, Germany, '00 209,928 

Stockholm, Sweden, '97 288,602 

Strassburg, Germany, '95 135,688 

Stuttgart, Germany,' '95 158,821 

Suchau, China, '97 500,000 

Sucre, Bolivia, '97 19,000 

Suez, Egypt, '82 10,919 

Swansea, Wales, '99 103,722 

Sydney, Australia, '97 417,250 

Tampico, Mexico, '94 9,885 

Tananarive, Madagascar, '97 90,000 

Tangier, Morocco, '89 30,000 

Tashkend, Russian Turkestan, '97 156,414 

Teheran, Persia, '97.. 210,000 • 

Tiberias, Holy Land, '97 8,000 

Tientsin, China. '97 950,000 

Tiflis, Eussia, '97 160,645 

Timbukto, Sudan, '97 20,000 

Tokio, Japan, '96 1,299,941 

Toronto, Canada, '91 181,220 

Trebizond, Turkey in Asia, '97 35,000 

Trieste, Austria-Hungary, '90 158,344 

Tripoli, Tripoli, '85 30,000 

Trondhjem, Norway, '91 29,162 

Tunis, Tunis, '96 153,000 

Turin, Italy, '97 351,855 

Upernivik, Greenland, '70 700 

Valencia, Spain, '87 170,768 

Valparaiso, Chile, '97 139,038 

Vancouver, Canada, '91 13,685 

Venice, Italy, '97 155,899 

Vera Cruz, Mexico, '95 88,993 

Verseilles, France, '96 54,874 

Victoria, Canada, '91 16,841 

Vienna, Austria-Hungary, '90 1,864,548 

Vladivostok, Siberia, '96 4:3,843 

Warsaw, Eussia, '97 638,209 

Wellington, New Zealand, '96 . . . 37,441 

West Ham, England, '98 286,664 

Windsor, Canada, '91 10,322 

Winnipeg, Can.ada, '95 38,100 

Wuchang, China, '98 300,000 

Yarmouth, Canada. '91 6,089 

Yokoba, Niger Terr., '97 50,000 

Yokohama, Japan, '96 179,502 

Zanzibar (British), 97' 30,000 

Zurich, Switzerland, '97 161,994 



ELEVATION OF SOME PLATEAUS AND MOUNTAIN PEAKS 



Feet 

Abyssinian Plateau 5-7,000 

Aconcagua, Andes, Argentina {highest 

in South America) ■ 22,860 

Apo, Mindanao, Philippines . . ; 10,312 

Ararat, Turkey in Asia 17,825 

Mt. Blanc, Alps, France (highest in Alps) 15,781 



Bolivian Plateau 10 

Brazilian Plateau 

Chimborazo, Andes, Ecuador 

Cotopaxi. Andes. Ecuador 

Elbruz, Caucasus, Eussia 

Etna, Sicily 



Feet 
18,000 
2-2,500 
20,498 
19,613 
18.200 
10,835 



AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 



IX 



Feet 
Everest, Himalayas, Nepal {highest 

known in world) 29,002 

Fremont Peak, Rocky Sits., Wy 13,790 

Fuiiyama, Japan 12,365 

He'cla, Iceland 5,110 

Kenia, Africa 18,620 

Kilimanjaro, Africa {highest knotcn in 

Africa) 19,780 

Kosciusko, Australia {highest in Austra- 
lia) 7,336 

Logan, Coast Ranges, Canada {highest 

kno^mi in Canada) 19,589 

McKinley, Alaska {highest known in 

JsTorth America) 20,464 

Mauna Kea, Hawaiian Islands 18,805 

Mauna Loa, Hawaiian Islands 13,675 

Mayon, Luzon Island, Philippines 8,900 

Mexican Plateau 5-6,000 

Mitchell, Appalachian Mts., N.C. {high- 
est in Eastern U.S.) 6,711 



Feet 

Mt. Marcy, N. Y 5,344 

Mt. Tina, Haiti 10,300 

Orizaba, Mexico {highest in 3Iexico) 18,314 

Pico del Turquino, Cuba .' 8,600 

Pike's Peak, Rocky Mts., Colorado 14,108 

Popocatapetl, Mexico 17,798 

Rainier, Cascade Mts., "Washington 14,526 

St. Elias, Alaska 18,025 

San Francisco Mountain, Arizona 12,794 

Shasta, Cascade Mts., CaUfornia 14,380 

Tibet Plateau 10-15,000 

United States, Western Plateau 5-6,000 

Vesuvius, Italy 4,200 

Washington, White Mts., N.H. {highest 

in Northeastern U.S.) 6,293 

Whitney, Sierra Nevada, California {high- 
est in Western U.S.) 14,898 

Tunque, Porto Rico 3,609 



SOME OF THE LARGEST RIVERS OP THE WORLD 



Basin 

Length Area 

in Miles Sq. Miles 
North America 

Arkansas 2,170 185,671 

Colorado 2,000 225,049 

Columbia 1,400 216,587 

Mackenzie 2,000 590,000 

Missouri 3,000 527,155 

Missouri-Mississippi . ..4,800 1,257,000 

Nelson 1,782 4-32,000 

Ohio 975 201,720 

Rio Grande 1,800 240,000 

St. Lawrence 2,200 580,000 

Yukon 2,000 440,000 

Soatli America 

Amazon .' 3,300 2,500,000 

Orinoco 1,350 366,000 

Plata 2,580 1,200,000 

Sao Francisco 1,800 200,000 

Europe 

Danube 1,770 300,000 

Dnieper 1,200 242,000 

Dwina 1,000 140,000 

Elbe 725 55,000 

Po 400 27,000 

Rhine 800 75,000 

Rhone 500 38,000 



Ocean 

Atlantic 

Pacific 

Pacific 

Arctic 

Atlantic 

Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Atlantic 

Pacific 



Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Atlantic 



Atlantic 

Atlantic 

Arctic 

Atlantic 

Atlantic 

Atlantic 
Atlantic 



Length 
in miles 
Europe 

Seine 482 

Thames 228 

Volga 2,400 

Asia 

Amur 2,800 

Brahmaputra 1,800 

Ganges 1,500 

Hoang-ho 2,700 

Indus 1,800 

Irawadi 1,500 

Lena 2,800 

Mekong 2,800 

Ob 8,200 

Yangtse-kiang 8,200 

Yenisei 8,000 

Africa 

Kongo 2,900 

Niger 2,600 

Nile 3,400 

Zambezi 1,500 

Australia 

Darling 1,100 

Murray 1,000 



Basin 




Area 




Sq. Miles 


Ocean 


30,300 

6,100 

563,300 


Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Caspian 


520,000 
425,000 
440,000 


Pacific 
Indian 
Indian 


570,000 
372,700 


Pacific 
Indian 


158,000 
950,000 


Indian 

Arctic 


280,000 

1,000,000 

548,000 


Pacific 
Arctic 
Pacific 


1,500,000 


Arctic 


1,200,000 
563,300 

1,273,000 
600,000 


Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Indian 




Indian 


270,000 


Indian 



SOME OP THE LARGE LAKES OF THE WORLD 



Area in Elevation Greatest 



Square in 

Miles Feet 

Aral Sea 26,900 160 

Baikal 12,.500 1,312 

Balkash 7,800 780 

Caspian 169,000 -85 1 

Chad, variable with 

season 10,000 

and often more 800-900 

Dead Sea 370 -1,310 1 1,830 

Erie 9,990 578 210 

Great Bear Lake 11,200 200 — 

Great Salt Lake 2,000 4,218 30-50 

Great Slave Lake 10,100 — over 650 

1 Beloic sea level 



Depth in 

Feet 

225 

4,550 

70 

2,400 



12 



Area in Elevation Greatest 



Square 
Miles 

Huron 22,322 

Ladoga 7,000 

Manitoba 1,850 

Michigan 21,729 

Nicaragua 3,600 

Nyassa 14,000 

Ontario 7,104 

Superior 30,829 

Tanganyika 12,650 

Titicaca 3,300 

Victoria Nyanza 30,000 

Winnipeg 9,400 



in 
Feet 
582 
60 
810 
582 
110 



4,000 
710 



Depth in 
Feet 
750 
730 

870 
83 



1,500 600 + 

247 738 

602 1,008 

2,800 2,100 

12,875 700 



590 + 
70 



APPENDIX 



DISTKIBUTION OF MANKIND 



Mongolians 



540,000,000 Etliiopians 173,000,000 



China ■. . .880,000,000 

Japan and Korea 55,000,000 

Indo-Chlna 35,000,000 

Malaysia 30,000,000 

Other Mongolians 40,000,000 

Cauasians 770,000,000 

Europe 355,000,000 

Asia 280,000,000 

America 115,000,000 

Africa 15,000,000 

Australasia 5,000,000 



Africa and Madag'ascar 153, 

North and South America 20, 



000,000 
000,000 



American Indians 22,170,000 



Mexico 8, 

Brazil 4, 

Colombia 3. 

Peru 2! 

Bolivia, Guatemala, and Venezuela .... i. 



United States 
Canada , 



765,000 
,200,000 
150,000 
700,000 
225,000 

250,000 
100,000 



RELIGIONS OF MANKIND 



Buddhists and Brahmins 650,000,000 

Christians 440,000,000 

Jews 8,000,000 



Mohammedans 180,000,000 

Pagans and others 2.50,000,000 



PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES FROM WHICH THE FOREIGN BORN POPULATION OF THE 
UNITED STATES HAS COME 



Country of Birth Number in 1890 

Germany 2,784,894 

Ireland 1,871,509 

Canada and Newfoundland 980,938 

England 909,092 

Sweden 478,041 

Norway 322,665 



Country of Birth Number in 1890 

Scotland 242,231 

Russia 182,644 

Italy 182,580 

Poland 147,440 

Total of foreign born population 9,249,547 



DISTRIBUTION OF NEGROES, 



IN THE FIFTEEN STATES "WHERE THEY 
MOST NUMEROUS 



Percentage of 
Number of Negroes Negroes to total 
States in 1890 population, 1890 

1. Georgia 858,815 46.74 

2. Mississippi 742,559 57.58 

3. South Carolina . . . .688,934 59.85 

4. Alabama 678,489 44.84 

5. Virginia 685,438 88.87 

6. North Carolina..... %1.018 84.67 

7. Louisiana 559,193 49.99 

8. Texas 488,171 21.84 



Percentage of 
Number of Negroes Negroes to total 
States in 1890 ' population, 1899 
9. Tennessee 430,678 24.37 

10. Arkansas 309,117 27.40 

11. Kentucky 268,607 14.42 

12. Maryland 215,657 20.69 

13. Florida 166,180 42.46 

14. Missouri 150,184 5.61 

15. Pennsylvania 107,596 2.05 

Total number of Negroes in 1890, 7,470,040 



